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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Arcinive 

in  2009  witin  funding  from 

Boston  Library  Consortium  IVIember  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/farmconveniencesOOhals 


FA  R  M 
CONVENIENCES 


A     PRACTICAL     HAND-BOOK     FOR 
THE     FARM. 

TWO    HUNDRED  ATSTD    TWELVE    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


NEW    YORK: 

ORANGE    JUDD    COMPANY, 

75  1    BROADWAY. 

1884. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  18;4.  by  1 

ORANGE   JTDD   COMPANY, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington 


PREFACE. 


Skill  in  the  construction  and  use  of  simple  labor- 
saving  devices  is  of  vast  importance  to  the  farmer,  and 
any  aid  to  the  development  of  this  manual  dexterity  is 
always  very  welcome. 

The  volume,  herewith  presented,  abounds  in  valuable 
hints  and  suggestions  for  the  easy  and  rapid  construction 
of  a  large  number  of  home-made  contrivances  within  the 
reach  of  all.  It  is  an  every-day  hand-book  of  farm 
work,  and  contains  the  best  ideas  gathered  from  the  ex- 
perience of  a  score  of  practical  men  in  all  departments 
of  farm  labor.  Every  one  of  the  two  hundred  and  forty 
pages,  and  two  hundred  and  twelve  engravings,  teaches 
a  valuable  lesson  in  rural  economy.  **Faem  Coistyen^- 
lEisTCEs"  is  a  manual  of  what  to  do,  and  how  to  do  it 
quickly  and  readily. 


57^7^ 


CONTENTS 


PAG3 

Bin  for  Oats 9 

e   Fastenings  for  Cows 10 

I     Nests,  Movable,  for  Hens 11 

Straw,  How  to  get  Hid  of 13 

Bulls,  Young,  The  Management  of 15 

Ice-Hook,  A  Convenient 17 

v>-  Workshop,  Hints  for  the 17 

Barrel-Header,  A 19 

JL  Boats,  Building  Kibless 21 

«.  Tug,  To  Mend  a  Broken 24 

Hay  Racks 27 

Mired  Animal,  Extricating 29 

a.    Grinding  Tools 33 

Hanging  Hogs,  Method  of 34 

Bog  Spavin,  Relief  for 35 

a.   Tool  Boxes  for  Wagons 36 

o.  Hinge,  Making  a 38 

Shelter  for  the  Head 40 

o^    Level  with  Square  and  Plumb  Lino 41 

Cattle,  Keep  under  Cover 42 

Watering  Places  for  Stock 43 

o.   Shaving-Horse,  A 44 

Milking-Stool,  A 45 

Trap,  A  Locust 47 

Manure  Spreading 49 

Tools,  Putting  Away 51 

Doors,  Self -Closing* 52 

Ventilators  for  Fodder  Stacks 53 

t-    Corn  Marker  for  Uneven  Ground. 55 

Harrow,  A  Home-Made 56 

Land  Clearing  by  Blasting 57 

Losses,  Preventable  on  the  Farm , 63 

j^    Cradle  for  Drawing  a  Boat ..,.,... 64 

Feed  Rack  for  Sheep 65 

Night-Soil,  How  to  Manage , 66 

c    Trough,  A  Water  and  Feed 69 

«    StaUs,  The  Construction  of 70 

Hog  Killing  Implements, — Ringing 72 

Cement,  How  to  Mix 74 

Bulls,  Ringing  and  Handling 78 

Sled  for  Removing  Com  Shocks 81 

Trough,  A  Tagging 82 

Lime  and  Lime  Kilns  82 

Corn,  Unloading 87 

Stone  Boats 88 

Dump  Cart,  A 89 


CONTENTS.  7 

PAGE 

Washing  of  Hill-Sides,  To  Prevent 90 

Mink-Trap,  A  Log 92 

Plowing  From  Inside  of  Field 93 

Wire  Fence  Tightener 95 

I,   Planting  Corn,  A  Marker 96 

c    Feed  Trough  and  Halter 99 

oL  Scow,  How  to  Make  a  Fishing 101 

Flood  Fence 107 

Clearing  Slough  Land 107 

How  to  Dress  a  Beef 109 

Farm  Cart Ill 

Grate  Post  Braces 113 

Whipple-Trees  for  Plowing  Corn 114 

Fastening  for  Mill  Leg 116 

Hitching  a  Crib-Biter 119 

Vegetable  Matter,  How  to  Increase  in  Soil 120 

Open  Links 121 

Trap  for  Sheep-Killing  Dogs 123 

o.  How  to  Use  a  File  Properly 126 

Manure  Harvest,  The ' 130 

c  Fastening  Cattle  with  Bows 131 

Nest  for  Egg-Eating  Hens 135 

Plowing  Gear  for  a  Kicking  Mule , 136 

Fork,  A  Leaf 137 

Nail,  Horse-Shoe,  How  to  Drive , . 139 

(K  Screw-Drivers , . . .  = 140 

Prevent  Cows  Sucking  Themselves.  ........  =  ..„....„. 142 

c  Hay  Rack  and  Manger 145 

Basket,  A  Barn 145 

Cows  Kicking,  Treatment  of 146 

d  Boat-House,  How  to  Build 147 

Waste  Lands,  Make  Them  Useful 149 

A  Rat  Guard 150 

A  Crupper-Pad  for  Horses 151 

Dam  for  a  Fish  Pond. . . 152 

A  Wagon  Jack 154 

Brace  for  a  Kicking  Horse 156 

How  to  Save  Liquid  Manure 157 

An  Open  Shed  for  Feeding 159 

Shade  for  Horses'  Eyes 160 

A  Field  Roller 163 

Portable  Slop  Barrel 163 

Where  and  How  to  Apply  Fertilizers 164 

Mill  for  Crushing  Bones 165 

Farm  Wheelbarrow 168 

Balling  of  Horses'  Feet,  To  Prevent 169 

Cattle  Throwing  Fences.  To  Prevent 170 

e  Feed  Boxes 171 

c  A  Cattle  Tie 173 

A  Beef  Raiser ,    .  .  174 

Cedar  Stem  Soil-Stirrer. . .  175 


8  CONTEXTS. 


PAGE 

Hint  for  Pig-Killing 176 

o-  Mending  Broken  Tools 176 

c  A  Large  Feed-Rack. . .    178 

Barn  Door  Fastening 179 

Fork  Stable  Scraper 180 

Curing  Hay,  Method  of 181 

Granary  Conveniences 182 

Xon-Slipping  Chain  for  Boulders 184 

Pitchfork  Holder 185 

Hog  Loader,  A  Convenient 186 

Land  Scraper 187 

Bag-Holder,  A  Home-Made 189 

ir    Egg-Carrier,  A  Safety. 190 

Brush-Holder,  A 193 

Brood  Sow  Pens 193 

Rabbit-Trap,  A 194 

c  Wooden  Stable  Floor 195 

Holder  or  ''  Grip  "  for  Rails 197 

«u  Grindstone-Box  and  Hangers 199 

Corn  Loader 200 

Drains,  Protecting  Outlets  of 201 

Log  Boat,  A 203 

Wagon  Seats,  Cheap 203 

Bag-Holder  on  Platform  Scales 204 

Drains,  Making  Board 206 

a  Place  for  Tools 207 

Water-Spout  and  Stock-Trough 209 

Shed,  A  Desirable  Milking 210 

Wear  Plate  for  Harness  Tugs 211 

Fence,  Portable  Water 212 

Ditch  Cleaner  and  Deepener 212 

Dam,  How  to  Build • 214 

Hop  Poles,  How  to  Drive 215 

Grain  Box,  A  Convenient 216 

Road-Scraper,  A 217 

Root  Crops,  Aids  in-  Digging 218 

c  Swinging-Stall  Fronts 221 

Corn  Fodder,  Save  All  Everywhere 222 

Brush  Rake,  Improved 223 

Muck  and  Peat,  Digging 225 

Cleaner  for  Horses'  Hoofs 226 

Shelter  for  Stock  in  Cold  Weather 226 

Troughs,  Good  Stone 227 

Lambs,  Artificial  Feeding  of 229 

Bailed  Box,  A  Convenient 230 

Cart,  Cheap  Ensilage 233 

Hurdle,  A  Revolving  Sheep 234 

i     Nest  for  Setting  Hens 286 

Barn-Yard  Economy 237 

Shed,  A  Cheap  Manure 238 

Rack,  A  Sheep. 239 


FARM  CONVENIENCES. 


A  CONVENIENT  BIN  FOR  OATS. 

The  usual  receptacle  for  oats,  corn,  or  mill  feed,  or 
other  grain  for  domestic  animals,  is  a  common  bin  or 
box  about  four  feet  in  liight.  It  is  difficult  to  get  the 
grain  out  of  such  a  place  when  the  quantity  is  half  or 
more  exhausted.  To  obviate  this  inconvenience,  there 
may  be  affixed,  about  one  foot  from  the  bottom  on  one 
side  of  the  bin,  a  board,  (B)  figure  1.  This  is  nailed  so 
as  to  project  into  the  bin  at  an  angle  sufficient  to  allov/ 
the  filling  of  a  measure  between  the  lower  edge  of  board 
B  and  top  edge  of  the  opening  at  Jf.  The  opposite 
lower  side  of  the  bin  is  covered  with  boards,  as  indicated 


Fig.  1. — A  BIN  FOR  OATS  OR  OTHER  FEED. 

by  the  dotted  line  at  E,  for  the  purpose  of  placing  the 

contents  within  easy  reach.     The  top  can  be  completed 

with  hinged  cover  as  well  as  the  delivery  space.     By 
1* 


10 


FARM   COis^VENIElTCES. 


using  a  bin  of  this  form,  tlie  last  bushel  is  as  easily  re- 
moved as  the  first  one. 


FASTENINGS    FOR    COWS. 

Although  stanchions  are  really  the  safest  fastening 
for  cows,  yet  some  persons  object  to  them  because  the 
animals  are  held  in  a  too  confined  position,  and  one 
which  is  supposed  to  be  painful,  or  otherwise  objection- 
able to  the  cows.  Most  owners  of  valuable  cows  consider 
safety  to  be  the  first  requisite  in  their  management,  and 
the  question  as  to  what  the  cow  would  like  as  of  minor 
importance.  Stanchions  have  the  valuable  recommen- 
dation that  one  always  finds  his  cows  in  the  morning  just 
where  they  were  left  at  night,  if  they  have  been  properly 
secured.  Nevertheless,  for  those  who  dislike  stanchions, 
there  are  other  safe  ways  of  fastening  cows.  For  some 
years  we  used  the  method  shown  in  figures  2  and  3.     In 


— rASTENI>G  BY   SLIDING  RING  ON   A  POLE 


the  first  a  strong  smooth  pole  was  inserted  through  the 
floor  and  "^  stepped  "  into  the  beam  beneath  and  into  the 
floor  above.  It  was  also  fastened  by  an  iron  strap  bolted 
through  the  front  of  the  trough.     A  steel  ring  to  which 


FARM   CONVEKIEKCES. 


11 


a  steel  chain  was  attaclied  was  made  to  slide  up  and 
down  upon  the  post,  and  a  leather  neck  strap,  or,  in  some 
cases,  a  leather  head  stall,  was  attached  to  the  chain  by 
a  suitable  ring  or  loop.  The  ring  could  not  fall  so  low 
as  the  floor,  being  held  by  the  edge  of  the  feed-trough, 
and  the  cow's  feet  could  not,  therefore,  be  entangled  in 
the  chain  by  getting  over  it.  This  is  the  chief  danger 
in  the  use  of  neck  straps  and  chains,  but  it  may  be  avoid- 
ed in  this  way.  Another  plan  is  to  have  an  iron  rod 
bolted  to  the  feed-trough,  upon  which  the  ring  may  slide. 
This  is  equally  secure,  and  gives  more  room  for  move- 
ment to  the  cow.     With  these  ring- ties  it  is  best  to  have 


Fig.    3.— FASTENING  ATTACHED   TO   FEED-TKOUGH. 

short  stalls  to  prevent  the  cows  interfering  with  each 
other,  else  one  of  them  may  step  on  to  another  as  it  is 
lying  down.  The  teats  are  sometimes  injured  even  when 
stanchions  are  used,  but  the  danger  of  this  is  greater 
with  chain  ties. 


MOVABLE  NESTS   FOR  HENS. 

Hens,  as  a  general  thing,  are  remarkably  self-willed 
and  obstinate.     Perhaps  an  exception  may  be  made  as 


12  FARM    CONVENIENCES. 

regards  the  Brahmas,  which  are  very  docile  and  easily 
managed.  On  account  of  this  general  peculiarity  of 
fowls,  many  people  who  possess  a  somewhat  similar  dis- 
position, find  no  success  in  keeping  them.  Their  hens 
will  not  lay  in  the  nests  provided  for  them,  or  after  sit- 
ting a  few  days  upon  a  nest  of  eggs,  leave  them  and 
never  return.  The  consequences  are,  either  no  eggs  at 
all,  or  nests  hidden  where  they  cannot  be  reached  ;  no 
chickens,  and  time  and  labor  lost.  This  may  all  be 
avoided  if  the  owners  will  only  study  the  habits  and  in- 
stincts of  their  poultry  reasonably.  One  of  the  most 
inveterate  habits  of  hens  is  that  of  hiding  their  nests,  or 
seeking  them  in  retired,  shaded  places.  Those  who  would 
have  plenty  of  eggs  must  make  their  arrangements  ac- 
cordingly. A  very  cheap  and  convenient  nest  is  shown 
in  figure  4.     It   is  made   of   pieces  of   board   eighteen 


MOVABLE   hex's  NEST. 


inches  long,  nailed  endwise  to  three-sided  cleats  at  the 
top  and  bottom.  The  box  need  not  be  more  than  eight- 
een or  twenty  inches  in  length.  Some  corner  pieces 
are  nailed  at  the  front  to  make  it  firm,  and  the  back 


FARM   COKVENIEN"CES.  13 

sliould  be  closed.  These  nests  may  be  placed  in  secluded 
corners,  behind  sheds,  or  beneath  bushes  in  the  back 
yard,  or  behind  a  barrel  or  a  bundle  of  straw.  The 
nest  egg  should  be  of  glass  or  porcelain,  and  every  even- 
ing the  eggs  that  have  been  laid  during  the  day  should 
be  removed.  A  little  cat  straw  mixed  with  clean  earth 
or  sand,  will  make  the  best  material  for  the  nest.  This 
should  be  renewed  occasionally,  for  the  sake  of  cleanli- 
ness. When  a  hen  has  taken  possession  of  one  of  these 
nests,  it  may  be  removed  at  night  to  the  hatching-house, 
without  disturbing  her.  Before  the  nests  are  used,  they 
should  be  thoroughly  well  lime- washed  around  the 
joints,  to  keep  away  lice. 


HOW  TO  OET  RID   OF  STRAW. 

Many  farmers  in  "  the  West,"  and  some  in  what  we 
call  "the  East,"  are  troubled  as  to  what  they  shall  do 
with  the  piles  of  straw  which  lie  about  their  fields. 
Upon  the  same  farms  with  these  nearly  useless  straw 
piles,  many  head  of  stock  are  kept,  and  many  more 
might  be  kept,  which  could  be  made  useful  in  reducing 
the  straw  to  a  condition  in  which  it  would  serve  as 
manure.  If  the  already  urgent  necessity  for  manure 
upon  the  western  and  southern  fields  were  realized,  there 
would  be  little  hesitation  in  taking  measures  to  remove 
the  difficulty.  The  chief  obstacle  is,  that  these  involve 
either  personal  or  hired  labor  ;  the  first  is  objectionable 
to  many,  and  the  second  cannot  be  had  for  want  of  the 
money  necessary  to  pay  for  it.  The  least  laborious 
method  of  using  this  straw  and  making  it  serve  the 
double  purpose  of  a  shelter  for  stock  and  a  fertilizer  for 
the  field  upon  which  it  has  been  grown,  is  as  follows  : 
Some  poles  are  set  in  the  ground,  and   rails   or  other 


14  FARM   COIirVEl^riEN^CES. 

poles  are  laid  upon  them  so  as  to  form  a  sloping  roof. 
This  is  made  near  or  around  the  place  chosen  for  thrash- 
ing the  grain.  The  straw  from  the  thrashing-machine 
is  heaped  upon  the  rails,  making  a  long  stack,  which 
forms  three  sides  of  a  square,  with  the  open  side  towards 
the  south,  and  leaving  a  space  beneath  it  in  which  cattle 
may  be  sheltered  from  storms.  In  this  enclosure  some 
rough  troughs  or  racks  may  be  placed,  from  which  to 
feed  corn.  Here  the  cattle  will  feed  and  lie,  or  will  lie 
at  nights  under  shelter,  while  feeding  during  the  day 
upon  corn  in  the  field.  As  the  straw  that  is  given  them 
becomes  trampled  and  mixed  with  the  droppings,  a 
further  supply  is  thrown  down  from  the  stack.  The 
accumulation  may  be  removed  and  spread  upon  the  field 
to  be  plowed  in  when  it  is  so  required,  and  the  stakes 
pulled  up  and  carried  to  another  place,  where  they  may 
be  needed  for  the  same  purpose.  Such  a  shelter  as  this 
would  be  very  serviceable  for  the  purpose  of  making 
manure,  even  where  straw  is  scarce,  as  in  parts  of  the 
Southern  States.  There  pine  boughs  may  be  made,  to 
serve  as  a  covering,  and  leaves,  pine  straw,  dry  pond 
muck,  swamp  muck,  ^' trash  "from  cotton  fields,  corn 
stalks,  or  pea  vines,  and  any  other  such  materials  may  be 
gathered  and  thrown  from  time  to  time  beneath  the 
cattle.  Cotton-seed  meal,  straw,  and  coarse  hay  would 
keep  stock  in  excellent  order,  and  although  there  may 
be  little  snow  or  ice  during  the  winter  months  in  those 
States,  yet  the  animals  will  be  very  much  better  for  even 
this  rude  but  comfortable  shelter.  In  many  other  places 
such  a  temporary  arrangement  will  be  found  useful  in 
saving  the  hauling  of  straw,  stalks,  or  hay  from  distant 
fields,  and  the  carting  of  manure  back  again  to  them. 
It  will  be  found  vastly  easier  to  keep  a  tew  young  cattle 
in  such  a  field,  and  go  thither  daily  to  attend  to  them 
durir^  the  winter  when  work  is  not  pressing,  than  to 


FARM  COKVEKIENCES.  15 

haul  many  loads  of  hay  or  straw  to  the  barn  at  harvest 
time,  or  many  loads  of  manure  in  the  busy  weeks  of 
spring. 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  YOUNG  BULLS. 

Many  farmers  want  a  method  of  disciplining  bulls  so 
that  they  may  be  made  more  docile  and  manageable. 
To  do  this  it  would  be  advisable  to  work  them  occasion- 
ally in  a  one-horse  tread  power.  They  should  be  used 
to  this  when  young,  and  thus  being  made  amenable  to 
restraint,  there  will  be  no  ^'  breaking  "  needed  afterwards 
and  consequently  no  trouble.  We  have  used  a  Jersey 
bull  in  a  tread -power  in  which  he  worked  with  more 
steadiness  than  a  horse,  and  twice  a  week  he  served  a 
yery  useful  purpose  in  cutting  the  fodder  for  the  stock. 
Nothing  more  was  needed  than  to  lead  him  by  a  rope 
from  the  nose-ring  into  the  tread-power,  and  tie  him 
short  so  that  he  could  not  get  too  far  forward.  He  was 
very  quiet,  not  at  all  mischieyous,  and  was  a  yery  sure 
stock  bull ;  and  besides  this,  the  value  of  his  work  was 
at  least  equal  to  the  cost  of  his  keep.  Where  there  is  no 
tread-power,  a  substitute  may  be  found  in  the  arrange- 
ment shown  in  figure  5.  Set  a  post  in  the  barn-yard,  bore 
a  hole  in  the  top,  and  drive  a  two-inch  iron  pin  into  the 
hole.  Take  the  wheel  of  a  wagon  that  has  an  iron  axle, 
and  set  it  upon  the  top  of  the  post  so  that  it  will  turn  on 
the  pin  as  on  an  axle.  Fasten  a  strong  pole  (such  as  a 
binding  pole  for  a  hay  wagon)  by  one  end  to  the  wheel, 
and  bore  two  holes  in  the  other  end,  large  enough  to 
take  the  arms  of  an  ox-bow  in  them.  Fix  a  light-elastic 
rod  to  the  wheel,  so  that  the  end  will  be  in  advance  of 
the  end  of  the  larger  pole.  Yoke  the  bull  to  the  pole, 
and  tie  the  nose-ring  to  the  end  of  the  elastic  rod,  in  such 
a  way  that  a  slight  pull  is  exerted  upon  the  ring.     Then 


16 


FAEM   C0XVENIEJ5-CES. 


FARM   CON^VENIENCES.  17 

lead  the  bull  around  a  few  times  until  he  gets  used  to  it ; 
he  will  then  travel  in  the  ring  alone  until  he  is  tired, 
when  he  will  sto^D.  Two  hours  of  this  exercise  a  day 
will  keep  a  bull  in  good  temper,  good  condition  and 
excellent  health. 


A  CONVENIENT  ICE-HOOK. 

A  yery  handy  ice-hook  may  be  made  as  shown  in  fig- 
ure 6.  The  handle  is  firmly  fastened  and  keyed  into  a 
socket;  at  the  end  are  two  sharply- 
pointed  s|)ikes,  one  of  which 
serves  to  push  pieces  of  ice,  and 
the  other  to  draw  them  to  the 
shore,  or  out  of  the  water,  to  be 
loaded  and  removed.  It  may  be 
made  of  light  iron,  horse-shoo 
bar  will  be  heavy  enough,  and 
there  is  no  need  to  have  the  Fig-  6.— ice-hook. 
points  steeled ;  it  will  be  sufficient  if  they  are  chilled, 
after  they  are  sharpened,  in  salt  and  ice  pounded  to- 
gether. 

HINTS   FOR  THE   WORKSHOP. 

A  grindstone  is  very  seldom  kept  in  good  working  or- 
der ;  generally  it  is  "  out  of  true,"  as  it  is  called,  or  worn 
out  of  a  perfectly  circular  shape.  A  new  stone  is  fre- 
quently hung  so  that  it  does  not  run  ^^true,"  and  the 
longer  it  is  used,  the  worse  it  becomes.  When  this  is 
the  case,  it  may  be  brought  into  a  circular  shape  by 
turning  it  down  with  a  worn-out  mill-file.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  do  this  perfectly  by  hand,  but  it  is  easily  done 
by  the  use  of  the  contrivance  shown  in  figure  1.  A  post, 
slotted  in  the  upper  part,  is  bolted  to  the  frame.     A 


18 


FARM   COKVEXIEKCES. 


piece  of  hard  wood,  long  enough  to  reach  over  the 
frame,  is  pivoted  in  the  slot.  This  should  be  made  two 
inches  wider  than  the  stone,  and  be  pivoted,  so  that  an 
opening  can  be  made  in  the  middle  of  it,  of  the  same 
width  as  the  stone.  This  opening  is  made  with  sloping 
ends,  so  that  a  broad  mill-file  may  be  wedged  into  it  in 
the  same  manner  as  a  plane-iron  is  set  in  a  plane.  At 
the  opposite  end  of  the  frame  a  second  post  is  bolted  to 


7. — TRUEIXG  A   GRINDSTONE. 


it.  A  long  slot,  or  a  series  of  holes,  is  made  in  the  lower 
part  of  this  post,  so  that  it  may  be  raised  or  lowered  at 
pleasure  by  sliding  it  up  or  down  upon  the  bolt.  If  a 
slot  is  made,  a  washer  is  used  with  the  bolt ;  this  will 
make  it  easy  to  set  the  post  at  any  desired  height.  It 
should  be  placed  so  that  the  upper  piece  of  wood  may 
rest  upon  it,  exactly  in  the  same  position  in  which  the 
file  will   be   brought   into   contact  with  the  stone.     A 


FARM   COKVEKIENCES. 


19 


weight  is  laid  upon  the  upper  piece  to  keep  it  down,  and 
hold  the  cutter  upon  the  stone.  When  the  stone  is 
turned  around  slowly,  the  uneven  parts  are  cut  away, 
while  those  which  do  not  project  beyond  the  proper  line 
of  the  circumference  are  not  touched. 
A  Grinding  Frame  to  hold  tools  is  shown  in  figure  8. 


Fig.    8. — HOLDER   FOR   TOOLS. 

It  is  made  of  light  pieces  of  pine,  or  hard  wood.  The 
tool  to  be  ground  is  fastened  to  the  cross-piece.  A 
sharp  point,  a  nail,  or  a  screw,  is  fastened  to  the  nar- 
row end  of  the  frame,  and,  when  in  use,  the  point  is 
stuck  into  the  wall  of  the  shed,  which  forms  a  rest. 


A  NON-PATENTED  BARREL-HEADER. 

Kot  long  since  we  saw  in  operation  a  useful  contriv- 
ance for  pressing  the  heads  of  apple  or  egg  barrels  into 
place.      Both  apples  and  eggs  require  to  be  packed  very 


20 


FARM   CONVENIEKCES. 


firmly  to  enable  them  to  be  transported  in  barrels  with 
safety.  Apples  loosely  packed  in  a  barrel  will  come  to 
market  in  a  very  badly  brnised  condition,  and  if  the 
packing  around  eggs  is  not  very  firmly  compressed,  the 
eggs  and  packing  change  places  or  get  mixed  up,  and  it 
is  the  eggs,  and  not  the  packing,  which  then  suffers.  A 
barrel  of  eggs  properly  packed,  with  layers  of  chaff  or 
oats  an  inch  thick  between  the  layers  of  eggs,  and  three 
inches  at  each  end  of  the  barrel,  will  bear  to  be  com- 
pressed as  mnch  as  three  inches  with  safety;  without 
this  compression,  eggs  are  almost  sure  to  be  greatly 
damaged.  A  barrel  of  apples  may  fill  the  barrel  to 
about  two  inches  above  the  chime,  and  will  bear  to 
have  the  head  brought  down  to  its  place.  When  barrels 
containing  these  perishable  articles  are  thus  packed  they 
may  receive  very  rough  usage  without  injury  to  the  con- 
tents. The  header  referred  to  con- 
sists of  a  bar  of  half-inch  square 
iron  rod,  with  a  large  eye  or  loop 
at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  end 
two  diverging  hooks  which  grasp 
the  bottom  of  the  barrel.  The  bar 
is  bent  to  fit  the  curve  of  the  bar- 
rel. When  in  use,  the  hooks  are 
placed  beneath  the  lower  chime  of 
the  barrel,  one  end  of  a  short  lever 
is  placed  in  the  eye,  and  the  lever 
rests  upon  a  block,  which  is  set 
upon  the  head  of  a  barrel  properly  placed  in  position. 
A  strap  or  cord,  with  a  loop  or  stirrup  at  one  end,  is 
fastened  to  the  other  end  of  the  lever.  The  foot  is 
placed  in  the  loop  or  stirrup,  and  the  weight  of  the  body 
thrown  upon  it  brings  the  head  of  the  barrel  into  its 
place;  the  hands  being  free,  the  hoops  can  be  driven  down 
tightly  without  the  help  of  an  assistant.     Without  the 


Fiff.    9.— BAKKEL-HEAUER. 


FARM   COKVEKIEKCES.  21 

use  of  the  cord  and  stirrup,  two  persons  are  required  to 
head  barrels,  but  with  the  aid  of  these  the  services  of 
one  can  be  dispensed  with. 


BUILDING  RIBLESS  BOATS. 

A  method  of  building  boats,  by  which  ribs  are  dis- 
pensed with,  has  recently  been  brought  into  use  for 
coast,  lake,  and  river  crafts.  These  boats  are  light, 
swift,  strong,  and  cheap.  They  have  been  found  to  be 
remarkably  good  sea  boats,  and  to  stand  rough  weather 
without  shipping  water.  By  this  method  of  building, 
fishermen  and  others  who  use  boats  can  construct  their 
own  at  their  leisure,  and  in  many  cases  become  inde- 
pendent of  the  skill  of  the  professional  boat  builder. 
The  materials  needed  are  clear  pine  boards,  one  inch 
thick,  a  keel  of  oak  or  elm,  a  stem  and  stern-post 
of  the  same  timber,  and  some  galvanized  iron  nails. 
For  small  boats  the  boards  and  keel  should  be  the 
whole  length  of  the  boat  intended  to  be  built ;  for 
boats  over  sixteen  feet  in  length,  splices  may  be 
made  without  injuring  the  strength,  if  they  are  prop- 
erly put  together.  The  materials  having  been  pro- 
cured, a  frame  or  a  set  of  tressels  are  made,  and  the  keel 
is  fitted  to  them  in  the  usual  manner,  by  means  of 
cleats  on  each  side,  and  wedges.  The  stem  and  stern- 
post  are  then  fitted  to  the  keel  in  the  usual  manner,  the 
joints  being  made  water-tight  by  means  of  layers  of 
freshly-tarred  brown  paper  laid  between  the  pieces,  or 
by  the  use  of  a  coating  of  thick  white  lead  and  oil. 
Previously  to  being  fitted  together,  the  sides  of  the  keel, 
stem,  and  stern-post  are  deeply  grooved  to  receive  the 
first  strip  of  planking.  The  boards  are  then  ripped  into 
strips  one  inch,  or  an  inch  and  a  half  wide,  according 
to  the  desired  strength  of  the  boat.     For  rough  work, 


32 


FARM  co:n^vei5^iences. 


ikivo'i  Vir!'»!'"'''Vii! 


FARM   COKVEN'IEKCES.  23 

sucli  as  fishing  with  nets,  or  dredging,  an  inch  and  a 
half  would  be  a  proper  width  for  the  strips.  The  rip- 
ping may  be  done  with  one  of  the  hand  circular  sawing 
machines,  or  at  a  saw-mill,  with  great  rapidity.  The 
first  strij)  is  then  nailed  to  the  keel,  a  coating  of  tar  or 
white  lead  haying  first  been  given  to  the  groove  in  the 
keel  already  prepared  for  it.  The  broad  side  of  the 
strip  is  laid  next  to  the  keel.  A  set  of  molds,  corre- 
sponding to  the  lines  or  form  of  the  boat,  are  cut  out  of 
inch  boards,  and  tacked  to  the  keel  in  the  manner  shown 
in  figure  10,  with  the  help  of  cleats  upon  each  side. 
Then  one  stri23  after  another  is  nailed  to  each  preceding 
one,  and  the  shell  of  the  boat  is  built  up  of  these  strips. 
Each  strip  is  trimmed  down  at  tbe  ends  in  a  proper 
manner,  with  a  drawn  knife,  or  a  plane,  and  as  each  one 
is  nailed  to  the  jDreceding  one,  some  of  the  tar  or  white 
lead  is  brushed  over  it,  to  make  the  joint  tight  and  close. 
A  sufficient  number  of  nails  is  used  to  hold  the  strips 
firmly  together,  and  the  heads  are  driven  down  level  with 
the  surface  of  each  strip.  The  work  proceeds  in  this 
manner,  forming  the  strips  as  each  is  fitted,  bending 
them  to  the  shape  of  the  molds,  and  nailing  one  alter- 
nately upon  each  side,  so  that  the  molds  are  not  dis- 
placed by  the  spring  of  the  timber.  When  the  sides  of 
the  boat  are  completed,  the  fender  and  gunwales  are 
fitted,  and  bolted  to  them  to  strengthen  them,  and 
cleats  are  bolted  inside  for  the  seats  to  rest  upon.  The 
molds  are  now  removed,  and  the  boat  consists  of  a  solid 
shell  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  with  not  a  nail  visible 
excepting  on  the  top  strip,  and  conforming  exactly  in 
shape  to  the  model.  To  give  extra  strength,  short  pieces 
of  the  strips  are  nailed  diagonally  across  the  inside,  from 
side  to  side,  and  across  the  keel.  In  this  manner  a 
great  deal  of  additional  stiffness  and  strength  is  given  to 
the  boat.     A  boat  of  this  kind  is  easily  repaired  when 


24  PAEM    COyVElN'IE:N^CES, 

injured,  by  cutting  out  the  broken  part  and  inserting 
pieces  of  the  strips.  For  a  larger  boat,  which  requires 
a  deck,  the  strips  are  wider  and  thicker,  or  a  diagonal 
lining  may  be  put  into  it ;  knees  are  bolted  to  the  sides, 
and  the  beams  to  the  knees,  the  deck  being  laid  upon 
the  beams.  The  method  is  applicable  to  boats  of  all 
sizes  and  for  all  purposes,  and  its  cheapness  and  con- 
venience are  ra2)idly  bringing  it  into  favor.  If  the 
material  is  ready  for  use,  two  men  can  finish  a  large 
boat  in  two  weeks,  and  a  small  one  in  one  week.  These 
boats  being  very  light  and  buoyant,  considerable  ballast 
will  be  necessary  to  make  them  steady  enough  in  case 
sails  are  used. 


TO  MEND  A  BROKEN  TUG. 

No  one  should  go  from  home  with  a  buggy  or  a 
wagon  without  a  small  coil  of  copper  wire  and  a  ^'rmil- 
tnm  in  parvo  "  pocket-knife.  This  knife,  as  its  name 
implies,  has  many  parts  in  a  little  space,  and,  among 
other  useful  things,  has  a  contrivance  for  boring  holes 
in  leather  straps.  In  case  a  strap  or  a  leather  trace 
breaks,  while  one  is  on  a  journey,  and  at  a  distance  from 
any  house,  one  would  be  in  an  awkward  '*  fix  "  if  with- 
out any  means  of  repairing  damages.  With  the  cojDper 
wire  and  an  implement  for  boring  some  holes,  repairs 
can  be  made  in  a  very  few  minutes.  The  ends  of  the 
broken  strap  or  tug  may  be  laid  over  each  other  or 
spliced  ;  a  few  holes  bored  in  the  manner  shown  in  fig- 
ure 11,  and  some  stitches  of  wire  passed  through  in  the 
way  known  among  the  ladies  as  "back  stitching."  The 
ends  of  the  wire  are  twisted  together,  and  the  job  will  be 
finished  almost  as  quickly  as  this  may  be  read.  If  it  is 
a  chain  that  breaks,  the  next  links  may  be  brought  to- 
gether and  wire  wound  around  them  in   place  of  the 


FARM   COKVEKIENCES.  25 

broken  link,  which  will  make  the  chain  serviceable  until 
home  is  reached.  In  fact,  the  uses  of  a  piece  of  wire 
are  almost  endless.  N'othing  holds  a  button  upon  one's 
working  clothes  so  securely  as  a  piece  of  wire,  a.nd  once 
put  on  in  this  manner,  there  is  never  any  call  upon  the 
women  of  the  house  at  inconvenient  times  for  thread 


Fig.    11.— REPAIRING  TUG. 

and  needle  to  replace  it.  The  wire  will  pierce  the  cloth 
without  any  help,  and  nothing  more  is  needed  than  to 
pass  it  through  each  hole  of  the  button  and  twist  the 
ends  to  secure  them,  cutting  them  off  close  with  a  knife. 
There  is  scarcely  any  little  thing  that  will  be  found  of 
so  great  use  about  a  farm,  or  a  workshop,  or  in  a  mill, 
or  even  in  a  house,  as  a  small  stock  of  soft  copper  wire. 


BUSINESS  HABITS. 

There  is  probably  not  one  farmer  in  ten  thousand  who 
keeps  a  set  of  accounts  from  which  he  can  at  any  mo- 
ment learn  the  cost  of  anything  he  may  have  produced, 
or  even  the  cost  of  his  real  property.  A  very  few  farm- 
ers who  have  been  brought  up  to  business  habits  keep 
such  accounts,  and  are  able  to  tell  how  their  affairs  pro- 
gress, what  each  crop,  each  kind  of  stock,  or  each  ani- 
mal has  cost,  and  w^hat  each  produces.  Knowing  these 
points,  a  farmer  can,  to  a  very  great  extent,  properly  de- 
cide what  crops  he  will  grow,  and  what  kind  of  stock  he 
will  keep.  Ho  will  thus  be  able  to  apply  his  labor  and 
money  where  it  will  do  the  most  good.  He  can  weed 
out  his  stock  and  retain  only  such  animals  as  may  be 
kept  with  profit.  For  the  want  of  such  knowledge, 
2 


26  FAKM  co:n^ven'iei^ces. 

farmers  continue,  year  after  year,  to  feed  cows  that  are 
unprofitable,  and  frequently  sell  for  less  than  her  value 
one  that  is  the  best  of  the  herd,  because  she  is  not  known 
to  be  any  better  than  the  rest.  Feed  is  also  wasted  upon 
ill-bred  stock,  the  keep  of  which  costs  three  or  four 
times  that  of  well-bred  animals,  which,  as  has  been 
proved  by  figures  that  cannot  be  mistaken,  pay  a  large 
profit  on  their  keeping.  For  want  of  knowing  what 
they  cost,  poor  crops  are  raised  year  by  year  at  an  actual 
loss,  provided  the  farmer's  labor,  at  the  rates  current  for 
common  labor,  were  charged  against  them.  To  learn 
that  he  has  been  working  for  fifty  cents  a  day,  during 
a  number  of  years,  while  he  has  been  paying  his  help 
twice  as  much,  would  open  the  eyes  of  many  a  farmer 
who  has  actually  been  doing  this,  and  it  would  convince 
him  that  there  is  some  value  in  figures  and  book  ac- 
counts. It  is  not  generally  understood  that  a  man  who 
raises  twenty  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  pays  twice  as 
much  for  his  plowing  and  harrowing,  twice  as  much  for 
labor,  and  twice  as  great  interest  upon  the  cost  of  his 
farm,  as  a  neighbor  who  raises  forty  bushels  per  acre. 
Nor  is  it  understood  that  when  he  raises  a  pig  that 
makes  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  pork  in  a  year, 
that  his  pork  costs  him  twice  as  much,  or  the  corn  he 
feeds  brings  him  but  half  as  much  as  that  of  his  neigh- 
bor, whose  pig  weighs  three  hundred  pounds  at  a  year 
old.  If  all  these  things  were  clearly  set  down  in  figures 
upon  a  page  in  an  account  book,  and  were  studied,  there 
would  be  not  only  a  sudden  awakening  to  the  unprofita- 
bleness of  such  farming,  but  an  immediate  remedy  would 
be  sought.  For  no  person  could  resist  evidence  of  this 
kind  if  it  Avere  once  brought  plainly  home  to  him.  If 
storekeepers,  merchants,  or  manufacturers  kept  no  ac- 
counts, they  could  not  possibly  carry  on  their  business, 
and  it  is  only  because  the  farmer's  business  is  one  of  the 


FAEM   COiTVElS'IEKCES. 


27 


most  safe  that  he  can  still  go  on  working  in  the  dark, 
and  throwing  away  opportnnities  of  bettering  his  con- 
dition and  increasing  his  jjrofits. 


HAY-RACKS. 
We  here  illustrate  two  kinds  of  hay-racks,  which  haye 


Fig.    13.— HAT-KACK. 

been  found  more  convenient  in  use  than  some  of  the  old 


Fig.    13.---RACK  FOR  GRAIN. 

kinds.    That  shown  in  figure  12  consists  of  a  frame  made 


28 


FAKM  CONVEIS'IEN'CES. 


FARM   CONVENIENCES. 


29 


of  scantlings,  mortised  together,  and  fitting  upon  the 
wagon  after  the  box  has  been  removed.  Cross-pieces, 
which  project  over  the  wheels,  are  bolted  to  the  frame, 
and  to  these  one  or  two  side-boards  are  bolted.  A  few 
short,  sharpened  stakes  are  fixed  into  the  sides  of  the 
frame,  which  help  to  hold  the  load,  and  prevent  it  from 
slipping  off  from  the  rack  during  the  loading.  A  strong 
rack  of  this  kind  may  be  made  to  carry  a  very  large  load 
of  hay.  "We  have  seen  over  thirty  hundred-weight  loaded 
upon  one  of  them,  and  more  might 
have  been  easily  added  to  the  load. 
The  plan  of  building  this  rack  is 
readily  seen  by  studying  the  engrav- 
ing. At  figure  13  is  shown  a  rack 
made  to  fit  upon  a  wagon  body. 
When  grain  is  hauled,  much  is 
sometimes  lost  through  the  rack,  by 
shelling.  This  is  almost  always  the 
case  in  hauling  ripe  oats,  and  always 
in  drawing  buckwheat.  To  avoid 
this  loss,  we  have  used  a  strong 
wagon-box  of  rough  planks,  fitted 
bolted  securely  to  the  sides.  Into 
fitted  head  and  tail  racks,  as  shown  in  the  engraving. 
Tor  the  sides  we  procured  natural  crooks,  shown  in 
figure  14. 


14. — SUPPORT  FOR 
RACK. 


with  iron  sockets, 
these  sockets  were 


HOW  TO  EXTRICATE  A  MIEED  ANIMAL.] 

An  animal  rAired  in  a  swamp  gets  into  a  worse  pre- 
dicament the  longer  it  struggles.  The  effort  to  extricate 
it  should  be  made  in  an  effective  manner,  so  that  the  ani- 
mal may  not  be  encouraged  to  exhaust  itself  in  repeated  ex- 
ertions, which  are  useless,  and  only  sink  it  deeper  in  the 
mire.     The  usual  method  is  to  fasten  a  rope  around  the 


30  PARM   COiiTVEls^IENCES. 

animal's  horns  or  neck,  and  while  this  is  pulled  by  some 
of  the  assistants,  others  place  rails  heneath  the  body  of 
the  animal  for  the  purpose  of  lifting  it  out  of  the  hole. 
This  plan  is  sometimes  effective,  but  it  often  is  not,  and 
at  best  it  is  a  slow,  clumsy,  and  laborious  method.  The 
materials  needed  for  the  method  here  referred  to  are  all 
that  are  required  for  a  much  better  one,  which  is  illus- 
trated in  Figure  15.  This  is  very  simple,  and  two  men 
can  operate  it,  and,  at  a  pinch,  even  one  man  alone  may 
succeed  with  it.  A  strong  stake  or  an  iron  bar  is  driven 
into  the  solid  ground  at  a  distance  of  twenty-five  feet  or 
more  from  the  mired  animal.  Two  short  rails,  about 
nine  feet  long,  are  tied  together  near  the  ends,  so  that 
they  can  be  spread  apart  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  shears, 
for  hoisting.  A  long  rope  is  fastened  around  the  horns 
or  neck  of  the  animal,  with  such  a  knot  that  the  loop 
cannot  be  drawn  tight  enough  to  do  any  injury.  The 
rope  is  cast  over  the  ends  of  the  rails  as  they  are  set  up 
upon  the  edge  of  the  solid  ground,  and  carried  to  the 
stake  or  crow-bar  beyond.  The  end  of  the  rope  is  fast- 
ened to  a  stout  hand-spike,  leaving  about  a  foot  of  the 
end  of  it  free.  This  end  is  laid  against  the  bar  or  stake, 
and  the  other  end  is  moved  around  it  so  that  the  rope  is 
wound  upon  it,  drawing  it  up  and  with  it  drawing  the 
animal  out  of  the  mire.  The  rope  being  held  up  by  the 
tied  rails,  tends  to  lift  the  animal  and  make  its  extrica- 
tion very  easy. 


HOW   TO  SAVE  AND  IvEEP  MANURE. 

There  is  no  question  more  frequently  or  seriously  con- 
sidered by  the  farmer,  than  how  he  shall  get,  keep,  and 
spend  an  adequate  sup^oly  of  manure  ;  nor  is  there  any- 
thing about  the  farm  which  is  of  greater  importance 
to  its  successful  management  than  the  manure  heap. 


FARM   CONVEKIEKCES.  31 

There  are  few  farmers  now  left  who  pretend  to  ignore 
this  feed  for  the  land ;  and  few  localities,  even  in  the 
newer  "Western  States^  where  niannre  now  is  thought  to 
be  a  nuisance.  We  haye  gradually  come  to  the  ineyitable 
final  end  of  our  ^'^  virgin  farms,"  and  have  now  either  to 
saye  what  is  left  of  their  wonderful  natural  fertility,  or 
to  restore  them  slowly  and  laboriously  to  a  profitable 
condition.  We  have  reached  the  end  of  our  tether,  and 
are  obliged  to  confess  that  we  haye  trespassed  oyer  the 
line  wdiich  bounds  the  territory  of  the  locust,  or  have 
improyed  the  face  of  the  country  so  much  that,  the  pro- 
tecting timber  being  remoyed,  the  water  supply  is  be- 
coming precarious,  and  springs,  brooks,  and  riyers  no 
longer  flow  as  they  did  heretofore.  To  some  extent  the 
tide  of  emigration,  which  has  flowed  westward  so  many 
years,  is  now  eddying  or  even  ebbing,  and  the  cheap, 
worn  lands  of  the  East  are  finding  purchasers,  who  un- 
dertake to  briug  them  back  to  their  former  condition. 
At  the  same  time  Eastern  farmers  are  discovering  more 
and  more  certainly  that  they  must  increase  their  crops, 
and  make  one  acre  produce  as  much  as  two  have  hereto- 
fore done.  The  only  way  in  which  either  of  these  classes 
can  succeed,  is  by  keeping  sufficient  stock  to  manure 
their  farms  liberally  ;  to  feed  these  animals  so  skillfully 
and  well  that  they  shall  pay  for  their  feed  with  a  profit, 
and  in  addition  leaye  a  supply  of  rich  manure,  with 
which  the  soil  can  be  kept  in  a  i)roductive  state,  and  to 
save  and  use  the  manure  with  such  care  that  no  particle 
of  it  be  lost.  It  is  not  every  farmer  who  can  procure  all 
the  manure  he  needs  ;  but  yery  many  can  save  what 
they  haye,  with  far  greater  economy  than  they  now  do  ; 
and  this,  although  it  may  seem  a  question  secondary  to 
that  of  getting  manure,  is  really  of  jDrimary  importance  ; 
for  by  using  what  one  has  to  better  purpose,  he  opens  a 
way  to  increase  his  supply.     We  have  found  this  to  be 


32  FARM   COKVEiflEKCES. 

the  case  in  our  own  exj^erience,  and  by  strict  attention 
to  saving-  and  preserving  every  particle  of  manure  in  its 
best  condition,  we  have  succeeded  in  so  enlarging  our 
supj)ly  of  fodder  that  the  number  of  stock  that  could  be 
fed  was  largely  increased  each  year,  and  very  soon  it  was 
necessary  to  go  out  and  buy  animals  to  consume  the  sur- 
plus. To  bring  a  farm  into  improved  condition,  there 
is  no  cheaper  or  more  effective  method  than  this. 

The  ordinary  management  of  manure,  in  open  barn- 
yards, where  it  is  washed  by  rains,  dried  by  the  sun's 
scorching  heat,  and  Avasted  by  every  w-ind  that  blows,  is 
the  worst  that  is  possible.  In  this  way  half  or  more  of 
the  value  of  the  manure  is  lost.  By  figuring  up  what 
it  would  cost  to  purchase  a  quantity  of  manure  equal  to 
what  is  thus  lost,  the  costliness  of  this  common  method 
would  be  discovered,  and  the  question  how  much  could 
be  afforded  to  take  care  of  the  manure  would  be  settled. 
AVhen  properly  littered,  one  cow  or  ox  will  make  a  ton 
of  manure  every  month,  if  the  liquid  as  well  as  the  solid 
portion  is  saved.  Ten  head  would  thus  make  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  tons,  or  sixty  two-horse  wagon  loads 
in  a  year.  A  pair  of  horses  will  make  as  much  manure 
as  one  cow,  or  twelve  tons  in  the  year.  A  hundred  sheep, 
if  yarded  every  night  and  well  littered,  will  make  one 
hundred  tons  of  manure  in  the  year,  and  ten  pigs  will 
work  up  a  wagon  load  in  a  month,  if  supi3lied  with 
sufficient  coarse  material.  The  stock  of  a  one  hundred 
acre  farm,  which  should  consist  of  at  least  ten  cows,  ten 
head  of  steers,  heifers,  and  calves,  a  pair  of  horses,  one 
hundred  sheep,  and  ten  pigs,  would  then  make,  in  the 
aggregate,  three  hundred  and  sixteen  tons  of  manure 
every  year,  or  sufficient  to  give  twelve  tons  per  acre  every 
fourth  year.  If  this  were  well  cared  for,  it  would  be,  in 
effect,  equal  to  double  the  quantity  of  ordinary  yard 
manure  ;  and  if  a  plenty  of  swamp  muck  could  be  pro- 


FAEM   CONVENIEl^CES. 


33 


cured,  at  least  six  hundred  tons  of  the  best  manure  could 
be  made  upon  a  one  hundred  acre  farm.  If  this  were 
the  rule  instead  of  a  rare  exception,  or  only  a  possibility, 
what  a  change  would  appear  upon  the  face  of  the  coun- 
try, and  what  an  addition  would  be  made  to  the  wealth 
of  the  nation  ! 


GRINDINa  TOOLS. 

The  useful  effect  of  many  tools  depends  greatly  upon 
the  exact  grinding  of  their  edges  to  a  proper  bevel.  A 
cold  chisel,  for  instance,  requires  an  edge  of  a  certain 


Fig.   16.— DEVICE  FOE  GKINDIKG  MILL-PICKS. 

bevel  to  cut  hard  metal,  and  one  of  a  different  angle  for 
softer  metal;  the  harder  the  work  to  be  cut,  the  greater 
should  be  the  angle  formed  by  the  edge,  and  the  softer 
the  material,  the  more  acute  the  edge.     The  same  rule 


34 


FAEM  CONVENIENCES. 


is  to  be  obseryed  in  wood-cutting  tools.  But  there  are 
no  tools  which  require  more  exact  and  careful  grinding 
than  mill-picks,  and  the  first  business  of  a  miller  is  to 
know  how  to  grind  his  picks.  Upon  this  depends  the 
dress  of  the  stones,  and  the  quality  of  work  turned  out 
by  them.  Figure  16  represents  a  small  grindstone  for 
sharpening  picks,  which  is  run  by  means  of  friction 
wheels  covered  with  leather,  and  provided  with  a  gauge 
for  setting  the  pick  at  a  variable  angle  to  the  stone. 
This  gauge,  shown  in  the  engraving,  is  so  serviceable  as 
to  be  well  worth  a  place  in  any  farm  w^orkshop.  It  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  steps  raised  upon  a  slotted  plank, 
which  is  screwed  upon  the  frame  of  the  grindstone.  By 
means  of  the  slot  and  a  set  screw,  seen  below  the  pick, 
the  gauge  can  be  set  for  tools  of  different  lengths,  and 
each  step  causes  the  tool  set  in  it  to  be  ground  at  a  dif- 
ferent angle.  


A  METHOD  OF  HANGING  HOGS. 

An  easy  method  of  hanging  a  hog  or  a  beef,  is  by  the 
use  of  the  tripod  shown  in  figure  17.  It  is  made  of 
three  by  three  oak  scantling,  six 
feet  long,  connected  at  one  end,  in 
the  manner  shown,  by  means  of  an 
iron  bar  one  inch  thick,  passed 
through  a  hole  bored  in  each  piece. 
The  two  outside  pieces  are  fastened 
together  by  two  cross-jDieces,  bolted 
to  them,  so  that  they  are  spread 
at  the  bottom  sufficiently,  which 
would  be  about  three  feet.  A  hook 
is  fastened  to  the  lower  cross-piece, 
upon  which  the  hog  is  suspended. 
To  hang  the  hog  the  frame  is  laid 


Fig.   17.— TRIPOD  SET   UP. 


upon  the  ground  with   the  hog  between   the   outside 


FAKM  COKVENIEKCES.  35 

legs,  the  third  leg  being  drawn  backwards.  The  hog  is 
hooked  by  the  gambrel  stick  to  the  cross-piece,  the  frame 
is  lifted  up,  and  the  hinder  leg  is  spread  out  so  as  to  sup- 
port it,  as  shown  in  figure  17.  The  frame  may  be  low^ered 
easily  when  the  hog  has  to  be  taken  down,  and  as  the 
frames  are  cheaply  made,  and  occupy  little  room,  it  will 
be  well  to  have  several  of  them.  They  may  be  made  to 
serve  other  useful  purposes. 


RELIEF  FOE  BOG-SPA  YIN  AND  THOROUGH-PIK 

Bog-spavin,  and  thorough-pin,  which  are  in  reality 
the  same  disease,  differing  in  position  only,  and  that  very 
slightly,  may  be  considered  as  incurable.  But  like  many 
chronic  disorders,  they  may  be  very  much  relieved  by 
proper  methods.  They  are  caused  by  an  inflammatory 
condition  of  the  synovial  membrane  of  the  hock  joint, 
and  are  chiefly  located  in  the  vicinity  of  the  junction 
of  the  bones  of  the  leg,  or  the  capsule  between  the  tibia 
and  the  astragalus.  This  inflammation  may  be  primarily 
caused  by  sudden  shocks,  or  by  continued  strains  from 
hard  work,  and  the  troubles  are  common  among  those 
horses  which  are  of  a  lymphatic  constitution,  soft  boned, 
or  hereditarily  subject  to  scrofulous  or  inflammatory  con- 
ditions. They  are  also  found  lower  down  the  leg,  in 
which  case  they  are  the  result  of  inflammation  of  the 
sheath  of  the  tendons.  They  do  not  always  cause  lame- 
ness, except  when  the  horse  is  first  brought  from  the 
stable,  and  after  a  short  time  the  stiffness  may  pass 
away.-  At  other  times  there  is  great  heat  and  tenderness 
in  the  parts,  and  the  animal  is  decidedly  lame.  The 
best  treatment  is  by  cold  applications  and  pressure  upon 
the  part.  Blistering,  which  is  sometimes  resorted  to, 
generally  increases  the  trouble,  and  may  cause  a  perma- 
nent thickening  of  the  tissues,  and  a  stiff  joint.     Pres- 


36 


FARM   COKVElflEN^CES. 


sure  is  best  applied  by  a  sort  of  truss,  or  strap,  provided 
with  a  single  pad  in  case  of  spavin  or  wind-gall,  or 
double  pads  in  case  of  tliorough-pin,  which  is  sim- 
ply a  spavin  or  wind-gall,  so  placed 
that  the  liquid  wiiich  is  gathered  in 
the  sac  or  puff  may  be  pressed  be- 
tween the  tendons  or  joint,  and  made 
to  appear  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
leg.  In  this  case  it  is  obviously 
necessary  to  apply  the  pressure  upon 
both  sides  of  the  leg,  and  a  double 
pad  strap  will  be  needed,  of  the 
form  shown  in  figure  18.  A  com- 
mon broad  leather  strap,  lined  with 
flannel,  or  chamois  leather,  to  pre- 
vent chafing,  is  used  ;  pads  of  soft 
Fig.  18.-SPAYIN  PAD.  leather,  stuffed  with  wool,  are  sewn 
to  the  strap,  and  the  exact  spots  where  the  pressure  is 
to  bear,  disks  of  several  thicknesses  of  soft  leather  or 
rubber  are  affixed.  The  pads  must  necessarily  be  made 
to  fit  each  individual  case,  as  success  will  depend  upon 
their  properly  fitting  the  limb.  The  pads  should  be 
worn  continually  until  the  swelling  disappears,  and 
meanwhile,  at  least  twice  daily,  the  j^arts  should  be 
bathed  for  some  time  with  cold  water,  and  cloths  wetted 
with  cold  water,  with  which  a  small  quantity  of  ether 
has  been  mixed,  should  be  bound  around  the  parts,  and 
the  jDads  buckled  over  them  so  tightly  as  to  exert  a  con- 
siderable pressure.  Absolute  rest  is  necessary  while  the 
animal  is  under  this  treatment. 


TOOL-BOXES  FOR  WAGONS,  ETC. 

To  go  from  home  with  a  wagon  without  taking  a  few 
tools,  is  to  risk  a  break-down  from  some  unforeseen  acci- 


FAEM   COKVEKIEIS^CES.  37 

dent,  without  the  means  of  repairing  it,  and  perhaps  a 
consequent  serious  or  costly  delay.  Those  who  do  busi- 
ness regularly  upon  the  roads,  as  those  who  haul  lumber, 
wood,  coal,  or  ores  of  different 
kinds,  should  especially  be  pro- 
vided with  a  set  of  tools,  as  a  reg- 
ular appurtenance  to  the  wagon, 
and  the  careful  farmer  in  going  Fig.  19.— wagon  box. 
to  market  or  the  mill,  or  even  to  and  fro  upon  the  farm, 
should  be  equally  well  proyided.  We  have  found  by 
experience  that  a  break-down  generally  happens  in  the 
worst  possible  place,  and  where  it  is  most  difficult  to 
help  one's  self.  The  loss  of  so  simple  a  thing  as  a  nut  or 
a  bolt  may  wreck  a  loaded  Avagon,  or  render  it  impossi- 
ble to  continue  the  journey,  or  some  breakage  by  a  sud- 
den jerk  upon  a  rough  road  may  do  the  same.  It  is 
safe  to  be  provided  for  any  event,  and  the  comfort  of 
knowing  that  he  is  thus  provided  greatly  lightens  a 
man's  labor.  At  one  time,  when  we  had  several  Wagons 
and  teams  at  work  upon  the  road,  we  provided  the  fore- 
man's wagon  with  a  box  such  as  is  here  described,  and 
it  was  in  frequent  use,  saving  a  considerable  outlay  that 
would  otherwise  have  been  necessary  for  repairs,  besides 
much  loss  of  valuable  time.  It  was  a  box  about  eight- 
een inches  long,  sixteen  inches  vvide,  and  six  inches  deep, 
divided  into  several  compartments.  It  was  supplied 
with  a  spare  king-bolt,  a  hanimer-stra|),  wrench,  some 
staples,  bolts,  nuts,  screws,  a  screw-driver,  a  hammer, 
cold-chisel,  wood-chisel,  punch,  pincers,  a  hoof-pick, 
coi3per  rivets,  a  roll  of  copper  wire,  a  knife  heavy  and 
strong  enough  to  cut  down  a  small  sapling,  a  roll  of 
narrow  hoop-iron,  some  cut  and  wrought  nails,  and  such 
other  things  as  experience  proved  to  be  convenient  to 
have.  The  shape  of  the  box  is  shown  in  figure  19.  The 
middle  of  the  top  is  fixed,  and  on  each  side  of  it  is  a  lid 


38  FARM   COKVENIEKCES. 

hinged  to  it,  and  which  is  fastened  by  a  hasp  and  staple, 
and  a  padlock  or  a  spring  key.  The  box  is  suspended  to 
the  wagon  reach,  beneath  the  box  or  load,  by  two  strong 
leather  straps  with  common  buckles.  Being  only  six 
inches  deep,  it  is  not  in  the  way  of  anything,  and  is 
readily  accessible  when  wanted. 


MAKING  A  HINGE. 

A  gate  with  a  broken  hinge  is  a  very  forlorn  object, 
and  one  that  declares  to  every  passer-by,  ^^here  lives  a 
poor  farmer.''  If  there  is  one  thing  more  than  another 
worthy  of  note  and  a  cause  of  congratulation  in  this  one 
hundredth  year  of  the  existence  of  the  United  States,  it 
is  the  infinite  number  of  small  conveniences  with  which 
we  are  supplied,  every  one  of  which  adds  to  the  sum  of 
our  daily  comfort.  More  than  this,  the  majority  of 
these  little  things,  which  are  in  use  all  over  the  world, 
are  the  inventions  and  productions  of  Americans.  So 
plentifully  are  we  supplied  with  these  small  conveniences, 
that  we  cannot  turn  our  eyes  in  any  direction  without 
coming  across  some  of  them.  It  is  these  small  matters 
which  enable  us  to  have  so  many  neat  and  pleasant 
things  about  our  homes,  at  so  little  cost  of  money,  time, 
or  labor.  One  of  the  greatest  of  the  small  conveniences 
around  the  farm,  or  the  mechanic's  rural  home,  is  the 
small  forge.  To  make  a  gate-hinge  with  the  help  of 
this  portable  forge  is  a  very  easy  thing.  We  take  a 
piece  of  half-inch  square  bar-iron,  as  long  as  may  be 
needed,  and  heating  one  end,  round  it  for  an  inch  or 
two  ;  then,  heating  the  other  end,  flatten  it  out  gradually 
to  a  point  for  the  same  length,  and  bend  it  over  a 
mandrel,  or  the  nose  of  an  anvil,  into  the  shape  shown 


FARM  COKVENIENCES.  39 

in  figure  20.  We  then  cut  off  a  piece  of  round  half -inch 
bar,  about  two  inches  long,  and  ^^^^^^^iiS^ 
drive  it  into  the  loop,  tightening     ^^^^  'a- 

the  loop  around  it  as  much  as  pos-  ^^' 

sible.     The  loop-end  is  'then  brought  to  a  welding  heat, 
and  the  joint  closed  around  the  pin,  and  neatly  worked 
smooth  with  the  hammer.     Another  piece  of  square  iron 
is  then  taken,  and  worked  at  each  end  the  same  as  the 
first  one,  the  loop,  however,  is  worked  open  upon  a  piece 
of  cold  |-inch  round  bar,  so  that  it  will  be  large  enough 
to  work  easily  upon  the  pin  of  the  first  piece.     A  thread 
may  now  be  cut  upon  the  round  ends,  or  they  may  be 
riveted  ov^r  a  piece  of  iron  plate,  or  a  large  washer, 
when  they  are  driven  through  the  gate-post  and  the 
heel-post  of  the  gate.     It  is  best,  however,  to  have  a 
screw-thread  and  a  nut,  using  a  washer  under  each  nut, 
to  prevent  the  wood  from  being  crushed.     The  whole 
then  appears  as  at  figure  21,  and  is  a  hinge  that  cannot 
easily  be  broken  or  worn  out.     In 
boring  the  holes  for  a  hinge  of  this 
kind,  a  bit   or  an   auger  of   only 
half-an-inch    diameter   should    be 
^'^'  ^^'  used,  so  that  the  edges  of  the  iron 

should  cut  their  own  way  into  the  wood,  and  when  the 
hinges  are  driven,  a  piece  of  hard  wood  should  be  laid 
upon  the  ends  that  are  struck,  so  that  they  will  not  be 
battered  by  the  hammer.  Care  must  be  exercised  to 
have  them  driven  in  squarely,  so  that  the  gate  may 
swing  without  binding  on  the  hinges.  For  lighter 
hinges,  the  same  sized  iron  may  be  used,  but  the  ends 
should  be  hammered  out  to  a  point,  and  the  edges 
should  be  notched  or  bearded  with  a  ^^^^^^^^^ 
cold-chisel,  as  shown  at  figure  22.  '*'^^^WP»iiii^pp 
These  may  be   driven  into  a  post  ^^»-  ^^• 

very  readily,  if  a  hole  smaller  than  the  iron  be  bored  to 


40 


FAKM   COKVEKIEKCES. 


lead  the  way,  and  when  driven  in,  will  not  be  easily 
drawn  out.  When  it  is  necessary  to  draw  a  hinge  out 
of  a  post  or  gate,  that  has  become  rusted  in,  or  that  has 
been  very  tightly  driven,  it  may  easily  be  done  by  boring 
a  hole  above  it,  or  on  one  side  of  it,  or  beneath  it,  a 
little  larger  than  the  iron,  and  then  forcing  it  into  the 
hole  by  means  of  a  wooden  wedge  driven  close  to  it.  It 
will  then  be  loose,  and  may  easily  be  taken  out  without 
difiBculty. 


SHELTER  FOR  THE  HEAD. 

Many  a  severe  headache,  and  a  restless  night  after  an 
exhausting  day's  work  in  the  harvest  field,  might  be 
prevented  by  the  use  of  some  simple  precautions.  The 
sun  beats  down  upon  the  head  and  neck  with  great 
force,  when  the  thermometer  marks  ninety  degrees  and 
over  in  the  shade,  and  the  scorching  effect  of  a  heat  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  degrees  in  the  direct  sunshine 
is  both  uncomfortable  and  dangerous  to  the  health. 
The  head  should  be  protected  in  such  cases  by  wearing 
a  straw  hat,  or  one  of  some  oj^en 
material,  with  a  broad  brim,  and 
by  placing  a  leaf  of  cabbage  or  let- 
tuce, or  a  wetted  cambric  handker- 
chief in  the  crown  of  it.  The  very 
sensitive  back  of  the  head  and  neck 
is  best  protected  by  means  of  a 
white  handkerchief  fastened  by  one 
border  to  the  hat-band,  figure  23, 
and  the  rest  made  to  hang  down 
loosely  over  the  neck  and  shoul- 
ders. The  neck  is  thus  shaded 
from  the  sun's  rays,  and  the  loosely 
flapping  handkerchief  causes  a  constant  current  of  air  to 


Fig.  23.— NECK-PRO- 
TECTOR. 


FAEM   COKVENIENCES. 


41 


pass  around  and  cool  the  neck  and  head.  We  have 
found  this  to  be  a  most  comfortable  thing  to  wear,  and 
its  yalue  as  a  protector  to  the  base  of  the  brain  and  the 
spinal  marrow  is  so  well  known  in  hot  countries,  that  the 
use  of  a  similar  protection  is  made  im.perative  in  armies 
when  on  the  march. 


HOW  TO  LEVEL  WITH  SQUARE  AND  PLUMB-LINE. 

The  common  carpenter's  square  and  a  plumb-line  may 
be  made  to  serve  as  a  substitute  for  the  spirit  level  for 
many  purposes  on  the  farm  or  elsewhere,  when  a  level 
is  not  at  hand.  The  manner  of  getting  the  square  in 
position  to  level  a  wall,  for  instance,  is  shown  in  figure 


Fig.  24.— MANNER  or  LEVELLING  A  WALL. 

24.  A  piece  of  board,  three  feet  in  length,  having  one 
end  sharpened,  is  driven  into  the  ground  for  a  rest ;  a 
notch  is  made  in  the  top  of  the  stick  large  enough  to 
hold  the  square  firmly  in  position,  as  shown  in  the  en- 
graving. A  line  and  weight,  held  near  the  short  arm, 
and  parallel  to  it,  will  leave  the  long  arm  of  the  square 
level.     By  sighting  over  the  top  of  the  square,  any  irreg- 


42 


FARM   COXVENIE]S"CES. 


ularities  in  the  object  to  be  levelled  are  readily  discovered. 
A  method  to  find  the  number  of  feet  in  a  descent  in  the 
ground  is  illustrated  by  figure  25.  The  square  is  placed 
as  before  directed  ;  then  a  sight  is  taken  over  and  along 
the  ujoper  edge  of  the  square  to  a  pole  or  rod  placed  at  a 


l'l'M"'."l>''l 


:>.^i 


desired  point.  The  point  on  the  pole  which  is  struck 
by  the  line  of  sight  shows  the  difference  between  the 
levels  of  the  two  places.  This  method  will  be  found  ap- 
plicable in  laying  out  drains,  where  a  certain  desired  fall 
is  to  be  given  to  the  ditch. 


KEEP  THE  CATTLE  UNDER  COVER. 

Even  now,  in  some  of  the  newer  regions  of  the  West, 
the  easiest  way  to  get  rid  of  the  manure  is  considered 
the  best.  The  English  farmers  have  long  been  obliged 
to  feed  farm  animals  largely  for  the  fertilizers  they  yield, 
and  this  has  proved  that  covered  yards  are  the  most 
economical.  These  covers  are  not  so  expensive  as  might 
be  supposed  at  first  thought.  Substantial  sheds,  large 
enough  to  accommodate  a  hundred  head  of  cattle,  may 
be  built  at  a  cost  all  the  way  from  $1,000  to  $1,500, 


FARM   COKVEKIEKCES.  43 

according  to  the  locality  and  price  of  labor  and  lumber. 
The  roof  may  be  made  with  three  ridge  poles  resting 
upon  outside  walls,  and  two  rows  of  pillars.  There 
should  be  ample  provision  for  yentilation  and  the  escape 
of  the  water  falling  upon  the  roof.  The  original  cost 
will  not  be  many  dollars  per  head,  and  the  interest  on 
this  will  represent  the  yearly  cost.  If  this  should  be 
placed  at  two  dollars  for  each  animal,  it  will  be  seen 
that  this  outlay  is  more  than  repaid  by  the  increased 
value  of  the  housed  manure  over  that  made  in  the  open 
yard,  and  exposed  to  the  sun  and  drenching  rains.  The 
saving  in  food  consequent  upon  the  warm  protection  of 
the  animals  has  been  carefully  estimated  to  be  at  least 
one-tenth  the  whole  amount  consumed.  In  the  saving 
alone,  the  covered  yard  gives  a  handsome  return  upon 
the  investment. 


WATERING  PLACES  FOR  STOCK  ON  LEVEL  LAND. 

It  is  frequently  the  case  that  there  are  nnderdrains  of 
living  water  passing  through  level  fields,  in  which  there 
is  no  water  available  for  stock.     In  such  a  case,  a  simple 


Fig.  26.— TAKING  WATER  FROM    UNDERDRAIN. 

plan  for  bringing  the  water  to  the  surface  is  shown  in 
figures  26  and  27,  in  which  is  indicated  an  nnderdrain 
of  stone  or  tile ;  a  pipe  of  two-inch  bore  of  wood  or 
tile,  and  about  15  feet  in  length,  is  laid  level  with  the 
bottom  of  the  drain,  and  connecting  with  a  box  one  foot 
or  more  square  sunk  into  the  ground.     If  the  soil  be 


44 


FAEM   COIS'VEN'IENCES. 


soft,  the  box  is  surrounded  witli  stones  as  shown.  A  lotv 
place  or  small  hollow  at  some  point  along  the  drain  is 
selected  for  the  watering  box,  or,  should  the  land  be 


F:^.  27. — THE    WATERING    PLACE. 


nearly  level,  then  with  plow  and  scraper  an  artificial 
hollow  is  soon  made  at  any  point  desired.  Two  fields 
may  be  thus  easily  watered  by  making  the  box  two  feet  in 
length,  and  placing  it  so  that  the  fence  will  divide  it. 


A  SHAVING-HORSE. 


The  shingle-horse,  shown  in  figure   28,  is   made   of 
a  plank  ten  feet  long,  six  inches  wide,  and  an  inch  and 


g.  28.— SHAVING-HORSE   FOR   SHINGLES. 


a  half  thick.  A  slot  is  cut  through  this  plank,  and  a 
lever,  made  of  a  natural  crook,  is  hinged  into  it.  A 
wooden  spring  is  fixed  behind  the  lever,  and  is  fastened 


FARM   COKVEKIEKCES. 


45 


to  it  by  a  cord.  This  pulls  back  the  lever  when  the  foot 
isremoyed  from  the  step  beneath.  The  horse  ma}'-  have 
four  legs,  but  two  will  be  sufficient,  if  the  rear  end  is 
made  to  rest  upon  the  ground.  Figure  29  is  made  of  a 
plank,  six  feet  long,  ten  inches  wide,  and  two  inches 
thick.  Four  legs,  two  feet  long,  are  fixed  in  inch  and  a 
half  holes,  as  shown  below.     A  bench,  eighteen  inches 


Fig.  29.— HORSE   FOK   GENERAL   USE. 

long,  eight  and  a  half  inches  wide,  and  an  inch  and 
a  half  thick,  is  fixed  upon  the  horse.  A  slot,  eight 
by  one  and  a  half  inches,  is  cut  through  the  bench  and 
the  plank,  and  the  lever,  two  feet  eight  inches  long,  is 
fixed  in  this  by  means  of  a  pin  passing  through  the 
bench.  Some  extra  holes  are  made  in  the  lever,  by 
which  the  height  of,  the  head  above  the  bench  maybe 
changed  to  suit  different  sizes  of  work.  A  head  is  put 
upon  the  lever,  six  inches  square  each  way,  but  bevelled 
off  at  the  front,  The  foot-board,  five  by  ten  inches,  is 
fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  lever  by  a  strong  pin. 


A  MILKING-STOOL. 

The  front  of  the  stool  (figure  30)  is  hollowed  to  re- 
ceive the  pail,  which  is  kept  in  its  place  by  a  wire,  fixed 
as  shown  in  the  engraving.     The  front  leg  has  a  pro- 


46  FARM  co:n'vei^iences. 

jecting  rest  upon  which  the  bottom  of  the  pail  is  23lacecl 
to  keep  it  from  the  ground,  and  also  from   breaking 


Fig.  30. — A  MILKING-STOOL. 

away  the  wire  by  its  weight.     The  milker  may  either  sit 
astride  of  this  stool,  or  sideways  upon  it. 


HOW  TO  TREAT  THRUSH. 

Thrush  is  a  disease  of  the  horse's  hoof,  quite  common 
in  this  country.  It  results  oftener  from  neglect  in  the 
stables  than  from  any  other  cause.  The  symptoms  are 
fetid  odor  and  morbid  exudation  from  the  frog,  accom- 
panied, with  softening  of  the  same.  A  case  recently 
came  under  our  observation.  A  young  carriage  horse, 
used  mostly  on  the  road,  and  kept  in  the  stable  through 
the  year,  showed  lameness  in  the  left  fore  foot  one  morn- 
ing after  standing  idle  in  the  stable  all  the  previous  day. 
On  removing  the  shoe,  and  examining  the  hoof,  a  fetid 
odor  was  observed.  The  stable  was  examined,  when  the 
sawdust  used  for  bedding  was  found  to  be  saturated  with 
urine.  The  stable  was  cleaned  immediately.  Dry  saw- 
dust was  placed  in  the  stall,  and  a  few  sods  i)acked.  in 
the  space  where  the  horse  usually  rested  his  fore  feet. 
The  lameness  diminished  without  medical   treatment. 


FARM   COKVEITIEKCES.  47 

and  in  ten  days  disappeared  altogether.  A  bedding  of 
sawdust  or  earth,  covered  with  straw  or  leaves,  promotes 
the  comfort  of  the  horse,  but  it  needs  watching  and 
systematic  renewing.  The  limit  of  the  absorbing  power 
of  the  driest  soil,  or  sawdust,  is  soon  reached.  If  a 
horse  is  kept  most  of  the  time  in  the  stable,  his  bedding 
soon  becomes  wet,  and  unfit  for  liis  use.  It  is  all  the 
better  for  the  compost  heap,  and  for  the  horse,  to  have 
frequent  renewals  of  absorbments  of  some  kind,  that 
fermentation  may  not  be  in  progress  under  his  hoofs. 
The  proper  place  for  this  fermentation  is  in  the  compost 
heap.  Too  often  the  care  of  the  horse  is  left  to  a  servant 
without  experience  in  the  stable,  and  the  result  is  per- 
manent disease  in  the  hoofs  and  legs  of  the  horse.  This 
is  most  certainly  one  of  the  cases  in  which  ^'  an  ounce 
of  prevention  is  w^orth  a  pound  of  cure." 


A  WESTERN  LOCUST  TRAP. 

A  great  many  devices  have  been  used  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  locusts  in  those  Western  States  where  they 
have  done  so  much  mischief  for  a  few  years  past. 
Whether  the  locusts  are  to  remain  as  a  permanent  pest 
to  the  Western  farmers,  or  not,  remains  to  be  proved. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  through  some  effects  of  the 
climate,  the  attacks  of  parasitic  enemies,  their  consump- 
tion by  birds  and  other  animals,  and  by  the  efforts  of  the 
farmers  themselves,  the  locusts  have  of  late  been  greatly 
reduced  in  numbers,  and  their  depredations  have  become 
almost  inconsiderable.  Many  methods  have  been  adopted 
for  their  destruction.  Rolling  the  ground  ;  plowing  fur- 
rows, and  making  pits  in  them  in  which  the  insects  are 
caught ;  burning  them  in  long  piles  of  dry  grass  ;  catch- 
ing them  in  large  sacks,  and  upon  frames  smeared  Avith 


48  FARM   C0KVENIE2!^CES. 

gas  tar,  and  upon  large  sheet-iron  pans  containing  burn- 
ing fuel;  all  these  hare  been  tried  with  more  or  less 
success,  as  well  as  the  negative  means  of  diverting  them 
from  their  course  by  means  of  thick  smoke  from  smoth- 
ered fires  of  prairie  hay.  A  most  effective  method  is 
one  invented  by  a  woman  in  Minnesota.  This  consists 
of  a  large  strip  of  sheet-iron,  figure  31,  from  ten  to 
thirty  feet  long,  turned  up  a  few  inches  at  the  ends  and 
one  side ;  a  wire  is  fixed  to  each  end,  or  at  proper  places 
in  the  front,  by  which  it  can  be  drawn  over  the  ground 
by  a  pair  of  horses  or  oxen.  A  light  chain  or  rope  is 
fixed  so  as  to  drag  upon  the  ground  a  foot  in  advance  of 


Fig.    31. — TR.IP  FOR   CATCHING  LOCUSTS. 

the  front  of  the  sheet- iron,  by  which  the  locusts  are  dis- 
turbed and  made  to  jump,  and  as  the  machine  is  moving 
on  at  the  same  time,  they  drop  upon  it.  A  thick  coat 
of  gas-tar  is  smeared  over  the  surface  of  the  iron,  in 
which  the  locusts  are  imbedded  and  stick  fast.  The  vig- 
orous kicking  of  the  trapped  insects  helps  to  keep  the 
mass  stirred  up,  and  present  a  sticky  surface.  When 
the  trap  is  full,  the  locusts  are  raked  off  into  a  pile,  and 
set  on  fire  and  consumed.  This  machine  can  be  drawn 
over  young  wheat  without  injury,  as  it  is  not  heavy 
enough  to  break  it  down,  and  being  flexible,  conforms 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground  it  is  passing  over.  The  en- 
graving shows  the  manner  of  preparing  the  sheet-iron 
for   this  purpose.     The  season  when  the  locusts  have 


FAEM   COXVEITIEKCES. 


49 


formerly  damaged  the  newly  sprouted  wheat  is  in  the 
spring,  and  it  will  be  useful  for  many  Western  farmers  to 
know  of  this  cheap  and  effective  method,  which  is  not 
patented,  and  for  which  they  may  thank  a  farmer's  wife 
of  more  than  usual  ingenuity  and  habits  of  observa- 
tion. 


SPREADING  MANURE. 

The  winter  is  a  good  season  for  spreading  manure. 
It  is  immaterial  whether  the  ground  is  covered  with 
snow  or  not,  or  whether  it  is  frozen  or  soft,  provided  it  is 
not  too  soft  to  draw  loads  over,  and  that  the  ground  is 
not  upon  a  steep  hill-side,  from  which  the  manure  may 
be  washed  by  heavy  rains  or  by  sudden  thaws.  We 
have  spread  manure  upon  our  fields  several  winters, 
and  always  with  advantage,  not  only  in  saving  labor  and 
time,  but  also  to  the  crops  grown  after  it,  more  espe- 
cially to  oats  and  potatoes.     In  spreading  the  manure,  it 


Fig-.  32.— WAGON  WITH    KAISED   BOX. 

is  the  best  to  drop  it  in  heaps,  leaving  it  to  be  spread  by 
a  man  as  soon  as  possible  afterwards.  This  may  be  done 
most  readily  by  using  a  manure  hook,  w^'th  which  the 
manure  is  drawn  out  of  the  sled  or  wagon-box.    Sloping 


50  FARM    CONVE:t^IENCES. 

y>^agon-beds  are  used  for  hauling  yarions  heavy  materials, 
and  why  should  they  not  be  used  for  this,  the  heaviest 
and  most  bulky  load  a  farmer  has  to  handle  ?  A  wagon, 
having  the  box  raised  (figure  32),  so  that  the  forward 
wheels  could  ]3ass  beneath  it,  would  be  very  convenient 
on  a  farm.  It  could  be  turned  in  its  own  length,  and 
handled  with  vastly  greater  facility  than  the  ordinary 
farm  wagon,  which  needs  a  large  yard  to  be  turned  in. 
Such  a  wagon  could  be  unloaded  with  great  ease  and 


Fig.  33.  — MANNEli    OF    SPREADING. 

very  rapidly  by  the  use  of  the  hook,  and  in  case  it  was 
desired  to  spread  the  load  broadcast  from  the  wagon, 
that  could  be  done  perfectly  well.  But  to  do  this  keeps 
the  horses  idle  the  greater  part  of  the  time,  and  is  an 
unprofitable  practice.  Two  teams  hauling  will  keep  one 
man  busy  in  the  yard  helping  to  load,  and  another  in 
the  field  spreading  ;  the  work  will  then  go  on  without 
loss  of  time.  In  dropping  the  heaps,  they  may  be  left 
in  rows,  one  rod  apart,  and  one  rod  apart  in  the  row ; 
each  load  being  divided  into  eight  heaps.  This  will  give 
twenty  loads  per  acre.  If  ten  loads  only  are  to  bespread, 
the   rows  should  be  one  rod  apart,  and  the  heaps  two 


FARM   COKVENIENCES.  51 

rods  apart  m  the  rows.  In  spreading  the  manure,  it 
should  be  done  evenly,  and  the  heaps  should  not  be 
made  to  overlap.  If  there  is  one  heap  to  the  square  rod, 
it  should  be  thrown  eight  feet  each  way  from  the  centre, 
covering  a  square  of  sixteen  and  one  half  feet,  as  shown  in 
figure  33.  One  heap  then  is  made  to  join  up  to  another, 
and  the  whole  ground  is  equally  manured.  There  is 
more  in  this  point  than  is  generally  supposed  by  farm- 
ers, many  of  whom  are  careless  and  wasteful  in  this  re- 
spect, giving  too  much  in  some  places,  and  too  little  in 
others.  The  consequence  is  uneven  growth  over  the 
field,  rusted  grain,  or  perhaps  laid  straw  in  some  places, 
and  in  others  a  half-starved  crop.  Another  important 
point  in  spreading  is,  to  break  up  the  lumps,  and  scatter 
the  fine  manure.  Unless  this  is  done,  the  field  cannot 
be  evenly  fertilized.  There  is  work  about  this,  which 
would  tempt  some  hired  men  to  neglect  it,  but  it  should 
not  only  be  insisted  upon,  but  looked  to,  and  its  per- 
formance insured. 


PUTTING  AWAY  TOOLS. 

The  w^earing  out  of  farm  implements  is,  as  a  rule,  due 
more  to  neglect  than  to  use.  If  tools  can  be  well  taken 
care  of,  it  will  pay  to  buy  those  made  of  the  best  steel, 
and  finished  in  the  best  manner  ;  but  in  common  hands, 
and  with  common  care,  such  are  of  little  advantage. 
Iron  and  steel  parts  should  be  cleaned  with  dry  sand  and 
a  cob,  or  scraped  with  a  piece  of  soft  iron,  washed  and 
oiled  if  necessary,  and  in  a  day  or  two  cleaned  off  with 
the  corn-cob  and  dry  sand.  Finally,  paint  the  iron  part 
with  rosin  and  beeswax,  in  the  proportion  of  four  of 
rosin  to  one  of  wax,  melted  together  and  applied  hot. 
This  is  good  for  the  iron  or  steel  parts  of  every  sort  of 
tool. 


5^ 


FARM   COIs-VENIENCES. 


Wood- work  should  be  painted  with  good,  boiled,  linseed 
oil,  white  lead  and  turpentine,  colored  of  any  desired 
tint ;  red  is  probably  the  best  color.  Keep  the  cattle 
away  until  the  paint  is  dry  and  hard,  or  they  will  lick, 
with  death  as  the  result.  If  it  is  not  desired  to  use  paint 
on  hand  tools,  the  boiled  oil,  with  turpentine  and  ^^iquid 
drier,"  does  just  as  well.  Many  prefer  to  saturate  the 
wood-work  of  farm  implements  with  crude  petroleum. 
This  cannot  be  used  with  color,  but  is  applied  by  itself, 
so  long  as  any  is  absorbed  by  the  pores  of  the  wood. 


SELF-CLOSING  DOORS. 


A  self-opening,  rolling  door  is  shown  in  figure  34.  A 
half-inch  rope,  attached  to  a  staple  driven  into  the  upper 
edge  of  the  door,  passes  parallel  with  the  track,  and  be- 


\l 

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m 

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1 

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\ 

1;  1 

■  \ 

1 

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If  ^  i 

h|i 

IJNJ 

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<B%'^^'wii,^iiiK^ 


Fig.  34. — SELF-CLOSING   SLIDING   DOOR. 

yond  the  boundary  of  the  door  when  open,  over  a  small 
grooved  pulley  and  thence  downward ;  a  w^eight  is  at- 
tached to  its  end.  The  door  is  shown  closed,  and  the 
weight  drawn  up.  As  the  door  is  a  self-fastening  one, 
when  the  fastening  is  disengaged  the  weight  will  draw 
the  door  open.     By  a  string  or  wire  connected  to  the 


FARM   COKVEKIENOES. 


53 


fastening,  the  door  may  be  opened  while  standing  at  any 
part  of   the  building,  or  if   one 
end  be  attached  to  a  post  outside, 


near 


the  carriage 


way, 


the  door 


may  be  opened  without  leaving 
the  vehicle,  a  desirable  plan,  espe- 
cially during  inclement  weather. 
The  weight  and  pulleys  should 
be  located  inside  the  building, 
but  are  shown  outside  to  make 
the  plan  more  readily  understood. 
By  attaching  the  rope  to  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  door,  it  may  be 
made  self-closing  instead  of  self- 
opening,  as  thought  most  convenient, 


-SWIMG-DOOK. 


Fig.  35. 

The  manner  of 
closing  a  swing-door,  as  in  figure  35,  is  so  clearly  shown 
as  to  need  no  description. 


VENTILATORS  FOR  FODDER  STACKS. 

The  perfect  curing  of  fodder  corn  is  difficult,  even 
with  the  best  appliances  ;  as  usually  done,  the  curing  is 
very  imperfect.    The  fodder  corn  crop  is  one  that  merits 
not  only  the  best  preparation  of 
the  ground  and  the  best  culture, 
but  it  is  worthy  of  special  care 
in  harvesting  and  curing.     The 
French  farmers  are  giving  much 
attention  to  this  crop,  and  by 
good  culture   are   raising   most 
extraordinary   and  very   j)rofit- 
Fig.  36.— FRAME.  able  yields.     Seventy  tons   per 

acre  is  not  unfrequently  grown  by  the  best  farmers.    We 
do  not  average  more  than  eight  tons  per  acre,  yet  with 


54 


FARM   CONVEXIEKCES. 


US  the  corn  crop  may  be  grown  under  the  most  farorable 
circumstances.  In  a  few  instances,  a  yield  of  thirty  tons 
per  acre  has  been  reached  by  one  farmer,  but  this  is  the 
highest  within  our  knowledge.  One  of  the  most  prom- 
inent defects  in  ordinary  American  agriculture  is,  the 
neglect  Avitli  which  this  easily  grown  and  yery  valuable 
crop  is  treated  ;  and  one  of  the  most  promising  improve- 
ments in  our  advancing  system  of  culture  is,  the  attention 
now  being  given  to  fodder  corn.  A  drawback  under 
which  we  labor  is  the  difficulty  of  curing  such  heavy 
and  succulent  herbage ;  this,  however,  will  by  and  by 
be  removed,  both  by  the  adoption  of  the  French  system 
of  ensilage,  and  by  better  methods  of  drying  the  fodder.. 
On  the  whole,  the  system  of  ensilage  offers  by  far  the 
greatest  advantages ;  the  fodder 
being  preserved  in  a  fresh  and  suc- 
culent condition,  and  the  labor  of 
preparing  the  silos,  cutting  the 
stalks,  and  properly  protecting 
them  from  the  atmosphere,  being 
actually  no  more  than  that  of  dry- 
ing the  crop  in  the  usual  manner, 
storing  it  in  stacks,  and  cutting  it 
afterwards  for  use  when  it  is  needed. 
It  is  impossible,  however,  that 
even  the  best  improvements  can 
be  introduced  otherwise  than  slow- 
ly and  with  caution ;  the  old  sys- 
tem, although  it  may  be  less 
effective  and  profitable  than  the 
Fig.  37,— VENTILATOR,  ucw,  will  bc  loug  retained  by 
many ;  and  even  in  the  old  methods  improvements  are 
being  made  from  season  to  season  by  the  ingenuity  of 
farmers.  We  recently  saw  a  very  simple  but  useful  ar- 
rangement for  the  ventilation  of  stacks,  and  mows  in 


FAKM   COKVENIEXCES.  55 

barns,  which  is  applicable  to  the  curing  of  corn  fodder. 
It  consists  of  a  frame,  figure  36,  made  of  strips  of  wood, 
put  together  with  small  carriage  bolts.  The  strips  may 
be  made  of  chestnut,  pine,  or  hemlock,  the  first  being 
the  most  durable  and  best,  two  inches  wide  and  one  inch 
thick.  The  illustration  shows  how  these  strips  are  put 
together.  The  length  of  the  section  shown  may  be  three 
or  four  feet.  In  figure  37  is  seen  the  manner  in  which 
the  sections  are  put  together.  A  small  stack  may  have 
a  column  of  these  ventilators  in  the  centre  ;  a  large  one 
may  have  three  or  four  of  them  ;  in  a  mow  in  the  barn, 
there  may  be  as  many  as  are  needful,  two  or  three,  or 
more,  as  the  case  may  be.  When  made  in  this  shape, 
they  are  so  portable,  and  easy  to  use,  that  the  greatest 
objections  against  ventilators  are  removed.  In  stacking 
fodder  corn,  it  is  safest  to  make  the  stacks  small.  Three 
of  these  sections,  placed  together  in  one  column,  are 
sufficient  for  a  stack  containing  three  tons,  and  which 
would  be  about  fourteen  feet  high.  The  sheaves  should 
be  small,  and  the  stack  somewhat  open  at  the  bottom, 
so  as  to  freely  admit  currents  of  air.  The  top  of  the 
stack  should  be  well  protected  to  keep  out  the  rain ;  a 
hay  cap  fastened  over  the  top  wouM  be  very  effective 
for  this.  If  a  quantity  of  dry  straw  could  be  thrown  in 
between  the  bundles,  and  on  the  top  of  each  layer  of 
them,  the  perfect  curing  of  the  fodder  would  be  then 
secured. 


CORN-MARKER  FOR  UNEVEN  GROUND. 

The  corn-marker,  shown  in  figure  38,  is  so  construct- 
ed that  it  will  readily  accommodate  itself  to  uneven 
ground.  It  consists,  of  two  pieces  of  plank,  these  form 
the  middle  set  of  runners.  Upon  these  pin  two  straight 
pieces  of  two  by  four  scantling,  with  each  end  project- 


56  FARM   CONVEXIEIs^CES. 

ing  over  the  runner  six  inches  ;  through  these  ends  are 
bored  holes  for  a  four-inch  rod.  Two  other  pieces  of 
plank,  like  the  former,  are  procured,  and  one  end  of  two 
other  pieces  of  scantling  are  pinned  to  each  runner  ;  then 
these  beams  are   connected  to  the  middle  pair  by  the 


FLEXIBLE     CORK-MAKKEK. 


bolts,  as  seen  in  the  engraving,  so  that,  while  one  runner 
is  on  high  ground,  the  other  may  be  in  the  land  furrow. 
In  turning  around,  the  two  outside  runners  may  be 
turned  up  against  the  seat. 


A  HOME-MADE  HARROW. 

The  harrow,  figure  39,  is  a  square  one.  The  teeth 
are  set  twelve  inches  from  centre  to  centre,  each  way. 
There  are  four  beams  in  each  half,  and  five  teeth  in  each 
beam.  These  beams  are  four  feet  eight  inches  long, 
mortised  into  the  front  piece,  which  is  three  feet  seven 
inches  in  length.  The  rear  ends  of  the  beam  are  se- 
cured by  a  piece  of  timber,  two  by  one  and  a  half  inches, 
halved  on  to  the  beams  and  then  bolted.  The  harrow 
is  made  of  two  and  a  half  by  two  and  a  half-inch  scant- 
ling, using  locust  wood,  because  of  its  great  durability 
and  firmness.  There  is  notliing  particularly  new  about 
this  harrow,  except  that  it  is  larger  than  common,  and 
the  novel  way  of  hitching  to  it  by  which  it  is  kept  steady. 


FARM   COi^VEKIEKCES.  57 

The  teeth  can  be  made  to  cut  six  inches  or  one  inch 
apart.  The  manner  of  hitching  is  shown  in  the  engray- 
ing.  The  draw-bar  is  made  of  three-eighths  by  one  and 
three-quarter   iron,  three   feet  four   inches   in   length. 


A.N    EXCELLENT    HARROW, 


The  chain  is  attached  to  this  by  a  hook  at  one  end,  the 
other  being  fastened  to  the  harrow  by  a  staple.  The 
chain  is  about  two  feet  long.  The  entire  cost  is  about 
twelve  dollars. 


CLEARiNa  la:n^d  by  blasting. 

The  explosive  used  is  dynamite  or  giant  powder.  It 
is  a  mixture  of  nitro-giycerine  with  some  absorbents,  by 
which  this  dangerously  explosive  liquid  is  made  into  a 
perfectly  safe  solid  substance,  of  a  consistence  and  ap- 
pearance not  unlike  light-brown  sugar.  It  is  not 
possible  to  explode  dynamite  by  ordinary  accident,  nor 
even  by  the  application  of  a  lighted  match.  A  quantity 
of  it  placed  upon  a  stump  and  fired  with  a  lighted 
match,  burns  away  very  much  as  a  piece  of  camphor 
or  resin  would  do,  with  little  flame  but  much  smoke, 
and  boils  and  bubbles  until  only  a  crust  is  left.  There 
is  not  the  least  danger,  therefore,  of  igniting  the  pow- 
3* 


58 


FARM   COl^YENIENCES. 


der  dangerously,  "iintil  properly  placed  for  the  blast.  In 
this  respect  it  has  a  yery  great  advan- 
tage oyer  ordinary  blasting  powder, 
which  may  be  exploded  by  a  spark. 
The  powder,  as  it  is  manufactured,  is 
made  into  cartridges  about  eight 
inches  in  length,  and  of  any  required 
diameter.  The  cartridges  are  wrap- 
ped in  strong  parchment  paper,  coyer- 
ed  with  paraffine,  and  the  true  form 
is  shown  at  figure  40.  They  are  fired 
by  a  cap  (also  in  figure  40),  which  is 
inserted  into  the  end  of  the  cartridge. 
The  fuse,  which  is  of  the  common 
kind,  is  inserted  into  the  open  end 
of  the  cap,  which  is  pinched  close  upon  it  with  a  small 
pair  of  pliers,  so  as  to  hold  it  firmly.     The  cartridge 


Fig.  40.  Fig.  41. 


Fig.  42.— THE    STUMP  BEFORE   THE  EXPLOSION. 

is  then  opened  at  one  end,  the  cap  with  the  fuse  at- 
tached inserted,  and  the  paper  tied  tightly  around  the 


FARM   CONVENIENCES.  59 

fuse,  with  a  piece  of  twine.      The  cartridge  ready  for 
firing  is  shown  at  figure  41. 

Our  first  operation  was  upon  a  green  white-oak  stump, 
thirty  inches  in  diameter,  with  roots  deeply  bedded  in 
the  ground.  To  have  cut  and  dug  out  this  stump  with 
axe  and  spades  would  have  been  a  hard  day's  work  for  two 
or  more  good  men.  The  shape  of  the  stump  is  shown 
at  figure  42.  A  hole  was  punched  beneath  the  stump, 
as  shown  in  the  figure,  with  an  iron  bar  (figure  43),  so  as 
to  reach  the  centre  of  it.  Two  of  the  cartridges 
were  placed  beneath  the  stump,  and  were  tamped 
with  some  earth  ;  a  pail  of  water  was  then  poured 
into  the  hole,  which  had  the  effect  of  consolidating 
the  earth  around  the  charge.  The  fuse  was  then 
fired.  The  result  was  to  split  the  stump  into 
numerous  fragments,  and  to  throw  it  entirely  out 
of  the  ground,  leaving  only  a  few  shreds  of  roots 
loose  in  the  soil.  The  result  is  shown  in  figure  44, 
on  the  next  page  ;  the  fragments  of  the  stump  in  the 
engraving  were  thrown  to  a  distance  of  thirty  to  fifty 
feet,  and  many  smaller  ones  were  carried  over  one 
hundred  feet.  The  quantity  of  powder  used  was  less 
than  two  pounds.  A  portion  of  the  useful  effect 
produced  by  the  explosion,  consisted  in  the  tearing 
of  the  stumj)  into  such  pieces  as  could  easily  be  sawed 
up  into  fire-wood  ;  by  which  much  after-labor  in 
breaking  it  up,  when  taking  it  out  in  the  usual  man- 
ner, was  saved.  This  test  was  perfectly  successful, 
and  proved  not  only  the  thorough  effectiveness  of 
this  method,  but  its  economy  in  cost  and  in  time.  "^43." 
Several  other  stumps  were  taken  out  in  the  same  man- 
ner ;  the  time  occupied  with  each  being  from  five  to  ten 
minutes.  Smaller  stumps  were  thrown  out  with  single 
cartridges,  and  in  not  one  case  was  anything  left  in  the 
ground  that  might  not  be  turned  out  with  the  plow,  or 


Eiff. 


60 


FAEM   CONVEITIENCES. 


that  would  interfere  with  the  plowing  of  the  ground. 
The  explosive  was  then  tried  upon  a  fast  rock,  of  about 


Fig.  44.— THE  EFFECT  OF  BLASTING  THE   STUMP. 

one  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet,  weighing  about  ten 
tons.     The  shape  of  the  rock  before  the   explosion  is 


Fis:.  45.— TUE   KOCK  AS   IT  WAS. 


shown  in  figure  45.     A  hole  was  made,  with  the  bar,  in 
the  ground  beneath  the  rock,  and  three  cartridges  were 


FARM  CONVEKIEKCES. 


61 


inserted  and  exploded.  To  have  jDroduced  this  result 
(shown  in  figure  46),  by  the  ordinary  method,  that  was 
here  done  in  a  few  minutes  by  one  man,  would  have 
occupied,  at  least,  two  men,  with  drills,  sledge,  etc.,  two 
or  three  days.  The  application  of  this  method  is  seen 
to  be  of  great  value  where  the  saving  of  time  is  an 
object.  An  acre  of  stumps  or  rocks  may  be  cleared  in 
one  day  by  one  or  two  men,  and  the  material  left  ready 


Fig.  46. — THE   ROCK  AFTER  BLASTING. 

for  use  as  fire- wood,  or  as  stones  for  fences  or  buildings. 
The  cost  in  money  is  also  reduced  in  some  cases  very 
considerably,  and  almost  absolute  safety  to  the  careful 
operator  is  insured.  It  would  be  generally  advisable  to 
secure  the  services  of  an  expert,  and  that  the  parties  who 
have  v/ork  of  this  character  to  bo  performed,  should 
jointly  engage  such  a  man,  who  could  either  do  the  whole 
work,  or  do  it  in  part,  and  instruct  a  foreman  or  skilful 


62  FAEM   CONVEKIEKCES. 

workman  sufficiently  in  a  day  to  perform  tlie  remainder. 
The  most  favorable  seasons  for  operating  upon  stumps 
and  rocks  are  fall  and  spring,  Avhen  the  ground  is 
saturated  with  water.  It  should  be  explained  that  this 
explosive  is  not  injured  by  water,  although  a  long-con- 
tinued exposure  to  it  would  affect  some  qualities  of  it. 


PREVENTABLE  LOSSES  ON  THE  FARM. 

It  is  a  "  penny  wise  and  pound  foolish "  system,  to 
breed  from  scrub  stock.  There  is  not  a  farmer  in  this 
region  who  has  not  access  to  a  pedigreed  Shorthorn  bull, 
by  a  payment  of  a  small  fee  of  two  to  five  dollars,  and 
yet  we  find  only  one  animal  in  ten  with  Shorthorn  blood. 
It  is  a  common  practice  to  breed  to  a  yearling,  and  as  he 
is  almost  sure  to  become  breech}',  to  sell  him  for  what  he 
will  bring  the  second  summer.  Many  farmers  neglect 
castrating  their  calves  until  they  are  a  year  old.  We 
think  ten  per  cent,  are  thus  permanently  injured,  must 
be  classed  as  stags,  and  sold  at  a  reduced  price.  Fully 
half  the  calves  so  stunted  never  recover. 

With  many,  the  starving  process  continues  through 
the  entire  year.  They  are  first  fed  an  insufficient  quan- 
tity of  skim  milk ;  then  in  July  or  August,  just  at  the 
season  when  flies  are  at  their  worst,  and  pastures  driest, 
they  are  weaned,  and  turned  out  to  shift  for  themselves, 
and  left  on  the  pastures  until  snows  fall,  long  after  the 
fields  yield  tliem  a  good  support.  They  are  wintered 
without  grain,  spring  finds  them  poor  and  hide-bound, 
and  the  best  grazing  season  is  over  before  they  are  fairly 
thrifty. 

The  keeping  of  old  cows  long  past  their  prime  is  an- 
other thing  which  largely  reduces  the  profits  of  the  far- 
mer.    We  have  found  quite  a  large  per  cent,  of  cows. 


FARM  COI^YEI^IEKCES.  63 

whose  wrinMed  liorns  and  generally  run-down  condition 
show  that  they  have  long  since  passed  the  point  of  profit. 
A  few  years  ago,  these  cows  would  have  sold  at  full  prices 
for  beef,  now  they  will  sell  only  for  Bologna  at  two  cents 
per  pound.  Thus  cows  have,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  been 
kept,  not  because  they  were  favorites,  or  even  because 
they  were  profitable,  but  from  sheer  carelessness  and 
want  of  forethought.  Another  fruitful  cause  of  loss  to 
tlie  farmer  is,  attempting  to  winter  more  stock  than  he 
has  feed  for.  Instead  of  estimating  his  resources  in  the 
fall,  and  knowing  that  he  has  enough  feed  even  for  a 
hard  winter,  he  gives  the  matter  no  thought,  and  March 
finds  him  with  the  choice  of  two  evils,  either  to  sell 
stock,  or  buy  feed.  If  he  chooses  the  former,  he  will 
often  sell  for  much  less  than  the  animals  would  have 
brought  four  months  earlier,  and  if  the  latter,  will  usually 
pay  a  much  higher  price  for  feed  than  if  it  had  been 
bought  in  autumn.  Too  often  he  scrimps  the  feed, 
hoping  for  an  early  spring,  and  so  soon  as  he  can  see  the 
grass  showing  a  shade  of  green  around  the  fence  rows,  or 
in  some  sheltered  ravine,  turns  his  stock  out  to  make 
their  own  living.  This  brings  one  of  the  most  potent 
causes  of  unprofitable  cattle  raising  ;  namely,  short  pas- 
tures. The  farmer  who  is  overstocked  in  winter,  is  al- 
most sure  to  turn  his  cattle  on  his  pastures  too  early  in 
the  spring,  and  this  generally  results  in  short  pasture  all 
summer,  and  consequently  the  stock  do  not  thrive  as  they 
ought,  and  in  addition,  the  land  which  should  be  greatly 
benefited  and  enriched,  is  injured,  for  the  development 
of  the  roots  in  the  soil  must  correspond  to  that  of  the 
tops,  and  if  the  latter  are  constantly  cropped  short,  the 
roots  must  be  small.  The  benefit  of  shade  is  lost,  and 
the  land  is  trampled  by  the  cattle  in  theijr  wanderings  to 
fill  themselves,  so  that  it  is  in  a  worse  condition  than  if 
a  crop  of  grain  had  been  grown  on  it.     From  all  these 


64 


FARM   COKVENIEXCES, 


causes  combined,  there  is  a  large  aggregate  of  loss,  and 
it  is  the  exception  to  find  a  farm  on  which  one  or  more 
of  them  does  not  exist,  and  yet  without  exception  they 
may  be  classed  as  ^^  preventable, "  if  thought  and  prac- 
tical common  sense  arc  brought  to  bear  in  the  manage- 
ment. 


A  CRADLE  FOR  DRAWING  A  BOAT. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  draw  a  boat  out  of  the  water, 
a  cradle  should  be  used.  This  is  very  easily  made  out 
of  some  short  boards  and  a  piece  of  plank.  The  boards 
are  cut  so  that  when  three  thicknesses  are  bolted  to- 
gether, the  joints  shall  be  broken  and  not  come  opposite 


Fig.    47. — CRADLE   iOR   A   BOAT. 

each  other,  as  shown  in  figure  47.  The  cradle  should  be 
made  to  fit  the  boat  tightly,  midway  between  stem  and 
stern,  so  that  when  it  rests  upon  it,  the  boat  will  be 
evenly  balanced  and  firmly  held.  The  cradle  is  mounted 
upon  two  wheels,  which  may  be  made  of  hard  wood 
plank.  A  piece  of  two-inch  plank  may  be  sawn  out  for 
the  axle,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  cradle  firmly  bolted 
to  it.  Such  a  cradle  as  this  may  be  made  light  or  heavy, 
and  if  desired  may  be  furnished  with  iron  wheels,  so  that 


FARM    COInVE  TIENCES.  65 

it  will  sink  iu  the  water.  It  can  then  be  run  down  under 
the  boat,  and  that  be  drawn  upon  it.  By  hauling  upon 
the  ring-bolt  in  its  stern,  the  boat  can  be  drawn  up  out 
of  the  water,  and  easily  moved  on  land. 

When  it  is  desired  to  lift  a  boat  out  of  the  water,  and 
suspend  it  in  a  boat-house,  all  that  is  necessary  to  be 
done  is  to  fix  two  strong  hooks,  or  rings,  in  the  top  of 
the  bouse,  and  a  ring-bolt  at  each  end  of  the  boat.  A 
pair  of  double-sheaved  blocks  is  provided  for  each  end  of 
the  boat.  The  blocks  are  hooked  to  the  rings  in  the 
house  and  to  those  in  the  boat,  which  is  then  drawn  up, 
one  end  at  a  time,  alternately,  until  high  enough.  If 
two  persons  are  in  the  boat,  both  ends  may  be  hauled  up 
at  once.  The  loose  end  of  the  rope  is  fastened  to  the 
ring  of  the  boat,  or  to  a  ring  or  a  cleat  at  the  side  of  the 
boat-house.  Then  the  boat  remains  suspended  in  the 
boat-house. 


FEED-RACK  FOR  SHEEP. 
The  rack,  figure  48,  is  made  of  poles  for  the  bottom 


Fig.  48. — FEED-KACK  FOR   SHEEP. 


and  top,  and  cross-bars  fitted  into  them.     The  bottom 
bar  slides  loosely  in  brackets,  which  are  fixed  to  the  wall 


66  FARM   COi^VENIEKCES. 

of  the  shed,  and  the  upper  bar  is  secured  by  a  cord, 
which  passes  over  a  small  pulley  in  a  hole  in  the  wall 
above  the  rack ;  a  weight  being  attached  to  the  outside 
end  of  the  rope,  serves  to  keep  the  rack  always  against 
the  wall.  When  the  hay  is  put  in  the  rack  is  drawn 
down,  and,  when  filled,  is  pushed  back  against  the  wall, 
holding  the  hay  closely,  and  being  kept  in  .place  by  the 
weight.  This  prevents  the  hay  from  being  pulled  out  too 
freely  by  the  sheep  or  cattle.  It  is  recommended  that 
the  grain-trough  be  placed  beneath  a  rack  of  this  kind, 
so  that  the  chaff  which  falls  from  it  may  be  caught  in 
the  trough  and  saved  for  use,  instead  of  being  trampled 
under  foot. 


HOW   TO  MANAGE  OTGHT-SOIL. 

The  fertilizing  properties  of  night-soil  are  well  known. 
The  principal  reason  why  this  valuable  material  is  ne- 
glected and  permitted  to  go  to  waste,  is  the  difficulty  of 
handling  it.  If  improperly  handled,  it  is  disagreeable 
and  difficult  to  apply  to  the  uses  to  which  it  is  best 
adapted.  There  are  many  cases  in  which  it  could  be 
made  use  of  very  conveniently,  if  rightly  managed.  In 
country  towns  and  villages  it  is  difficult  to  dispose  of  it, 
and  it  becomes  a  serious  nuisance  to  householders,  and 
a  detriment  to  the  public  health,  when  it  ought  to  be 
turned  to  profitable  uses.  In  some  other  countries  this 
refuse  matter  is  eagerly  collected  and  carefully  used  by 
the  farmers.  The  methods  employed  in  England,  Ger- 
many, and  France  might  very  well  be  adopted  by  us, 
and  a  large  quantity  of  fertilizing  material  be  gathered. 
By  the  methods  there  in  use,  the  night-soil  is  easily 
handled  and  prepared  for  distribution  upon  the  land,  or 
for  mixing  in  composts.  Arrangements  are  made  with 
persons  in  towns  and  villages  who  wish  to  have  the  soil 


FARM   COKVEKIEKCES.  67 

removed,  and  the  time  being  fixed  (this  is  always  in  the 
night,  from  which  circumstance  the  name  given  to  the 
material  is  deriyed),  wagons  with  tight  boxes,  or  carfcs, 
are  sent  to  the  place.  Carts  are  mostly  used,  as  indeed 
they  are  in  EurojDe  for  most  of  the  farm  work.  The 
carts,  or  wagons,  carry  out  a  quantity  of  earth,  chopped 
straw,  ashes,  or  such  other  absorbent  as  may  be  conven- 
iently procured,  and  some  sheaves  of  long  straw,  or  else 
the  ashes  or  other  absorbent  used,  which  is  frequently 
the  sweepings  and  scrapings  of  streets,  is  prepared  upon 
the  ground  or  near  by.     This  material  is  then  disposed 


Fig.    49. — PREPARING   NIGHT-SOIL. 

in  the  form  of  a  bank  enclosing  a  space  of  sufficient  size 
to  hold  the  night-soil,  as  shown  in  figure  49.  A  reserve 
heap  is  kept  to  be  mixed  with  the  night-soil  as  it  is  emp- 
tied into  the  place  prepared  for  it.  Wheelbarrows  with 
tight  boxes  are  generally  used  to  convey  the  soil  from  the 
cesspool.  When  the  whole  has  been  removed  from  the 
cesspool,  the  cut  straw  is  mixed  in  and  the  banks  of  earth 
are  turned  over  upon  the  pile,  which  can  then  be  han- 
dled with  shovels  or  forks,  and  is  ready  to  be  loaded  into 
the  wagon.  Some  of  the  long  straw  is  laid  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  wagon-box,  and  the  mixed  mass  is  thrown 
upon  it,  layer  after  layer  alternately  with  straw,  until 
the  top  of  the  wagon-box  is  reached.     It  is  most  con- 


68  FARM   COJ^VEK"IEKCES. 

venient  to  have  a  rack,  or  flaring  side-boards,  to  confine 
the  upper  part  of  the  load,  but  tliis  is  not  necessary  if 
the  loading  is  properly  done.  The  manner  of  loading 
the  top  is  as  follows  :  a  bundle  of  straw  is  spread  so  that 
half  of  it  projects  over  the  side  or  end  of  the  load.  A 
quantity  of  the  mixed  stuff  is  forked  on  to  the  straw,  the 
loose  j)rojecting  ends  of  which  are  turned  back  onto  the 
load  when  more  is  laid  upon  it.  The  doubled  straw 
holds  the  loose  stuff  together,  which  might  else  be  shaken 
off  the  load  as  it  is  carried  home.  In  this  manner  the 
load  is  built  up  until  it  is  completed,  when  it  appears  as 


Fig.  50. — MAXNEK   OF   LOADING  NIGHT-SOIL. 

shown  in  figure  50.  Loads  thus  made  are  carried  many 
miles  without  losing  anything  on  the  journey,  and  the 
mass,  which  would  seem  to  have  no  coherence,  is  kept 
solidly  together.  Carts  are  sometimes  loaded  to  a  hight 
of  two  or  three  feet  above  the  side-boards,  and  are  made 
to  carry  a  load  for  three  horses.  By  this  management, 
this  material  is  no  more  disagreeable  than  ordinary  ma- 
nure, and  the  work  of  moving  it  is  rendered  quite  easy. 


THE  USE  OF  LIME  IN  BLASTING. 

There  are  some  forces,  apparently  insignificant,  which 
act  with  irresistible  power  through  short  distances.    The 


FARM   CONVENIENCES.  69 

expansion  of  water  in  freezing  is  a  force  of  this  kind. 
The  increase  in  bulk  in  changing  from  the  liquid  to  the 
solid  state  of  ice  is  only  about  one-tenth,  yet  it  exercises 
a  power  sufficient  to  break  iron  vessels  and  rend  the 
hardest  rocks.  Every  one  who  has  slaked  a  lump  of 
quicklime  by  gradually  pouring  water  upon  it,  has 
observed  that  the  first  effect  of  the  contact  between  the 
water  and  lime  is  to  cause  a  swelling  of  the  lump.  It 
generally  expands  and  takes  np  considerable  more  room 
than  before.  This  expausive  force  has  recently  been 
successfully  applied  to  coal  mining  in  England.  Pow- 
dered quicklime  is  strongly  compressed  into  cartridges 
about  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  each  has  running 
through  it  a  perforated  iron  tube,  through  which 
water  can  be  forced.  These  cartridges  were  used  in  a 
coal  mine  in  place  of  the  usual  blasting  charge,  water 
was  forced  into  them,  and  the^  expansion  of  the  lime 
threw  down  a  mass  of  coal  weighing  about  ten  tons, 
with  little  of  the  small  coal  made  with  the  usual  blast. 
The  exemption  from  danger  and  the  avoidance  of  smoke, 
have  caused  coal  mine  owners  to  regard  this  new  method 
with  favor.  Some  of  our  ingenious  reapers  may  find  a 
useful  hint  in  this. 


A  WATER  AND  FEED  TROUGH. 

A  supply  of  water  in  the  cow-stable  is  a  great  con- 
venience ;  a  simple  arrangement  for  furnishing  it  to  the 
cows  in  their  stalls  may  be  made  as  follows  :  Sheets  of 
galvanized  iron  are  bent  to  form  a  trough,  and  fitted 
into  the  floor  joists  under  the  feed-box,  as  indicated  in 
figure  51,  making  a  trough  three  inches  deep  and  six- 
teen inches  wide.  The  flanges  on  each  side  are  nailed  to 
the  joists,  and  the  sheets  of  iron  riveted  together  at  the 


70 


FAEM  co:n"ve:n^iekces. 


ends,  and  made  water-tight  by  cement.  The  trough 
runs  the  entire  length  of  the  feed  floor,  and  is  supplied 
with  w^ater  from  a  pipe,  pump,  or  hose ;  a  pipe  at  the 
other  end  carries  away  the  surplus  water  and  prevents 
overflow,  and  another  pipe  with  a  faucet  is  provided  for 
emptying  the  trough.     The  feed-box  is  built  over  the 


Fi- 


-WATER    AND   FEED    TliOUGII    COMBINED. 


water  trough,  a  part  of  its  floor  being  a  trap — indicated 
by  dotted  lioes  in  the  engraving — by  which  admission 
to  the  Avater  is  gained.  Before  opening  this  trap,  the 
manger  is  swept  clean  ;  and  if  there  were  no  other  advan- 
tage than  this  compulsory  cleansing  of  the  mangers 
after  each  feeding,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  pay  for  the 
cost  of  constructing  such  a  watering  arrangement. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  STALLS. 

It  is  rare,  even  in  these  days  of  progress,  to  see  a  well- 
arranged  stall  in  a  farmer's  barn.  No  horse  stall  should 
be  less  than  six  feet  in  width,  nor  of  a  length  less  than 


FARM   CONVENIENCES.  71 

nine  feet.  This  affords  room  for  the  animal  to  lie  down 
and  rise  comfortably  without  bruising  hips  and  limbs, 
and  also  for  the  attendant  to  pass  in  and  out.  The 
partition  between  stalls  should  be  of  sufficient  hight  to 
prevent  playing,  biting,  and  kicking.  Racks  of  iron 
are  neat  and  serviceable.  The  horse  eats  its  food  from 
the  ground,  and  because  many  first  pull  out  a  greater 
portion  of  the  hay  from  the  rack,  we  shall  dispense  with 
the  rack  as  commonly  used,  and  substitute  a  single 
manger  which  serves  for  both  hay  and  grain. 

Whatever  may  be  the  foundation  of  the  stall,  whether 
of  brick,  stone,  cement,  clay,  or  wood,  it  should  have 
inclination  enough  to  carry  off  all  fluid.  Over  this 
place  a  flooring  composed  of  strips  of  plank,  four  inches 
in  width  by  two  inches  in  thickness,  with  an  inch  inter- 
vening between  each  strip.  This  need  not  extend  more 
than  half  the  length  of  the  stall,  the  upper  portion  being 
compact.  The  essential  point  is  that  the  horse  shall 
stand  with  an  equal  weight  upon  all  the  extremities. 
This  custom  of  confining  a  horse  to  a  sloping  stall,  in 
one  position  sometimes  for  days,  is  a  cruel  one,  and  very 
detrimental  to  the  limbs  and  feet,  as  it  brings  about, 
sooner  or  later,  serious  affections  in  these  parts.  A 
loose  box  is  far  preferable  to  the  stall,  wherever  ]3racti- 
cable.  Every  stable  or  barn  should  be  provided  with 
one  at  least,  m  case  of  sickness  or  accident.  By  the 
arrangement  of  a  floor  as  just  described,  the  bedding  is 
kept  dry  and  the  animal  clean  and  comfortable.  Litter 
should  be  always  kept  beneath  the  animal;  it  gives  an 
air  of  comfort  to  the  place  and  invites  to  repose  of  body 
and  limbs  by  day  and  night.  Stalls  for  both  horses  and 
cattle  should  be  of  sufficient  hight,  as  also  all  door  and 
passage  ways  about  a  barn.  Formerly,  it  was  the  cus- 
tom to  build  in  such  a  way  that  no  horse,  and  not  even 
a  man  of  respectable  hight  could  enter  a  door-way  with- 


72  FAEM  COXVENIEN-CES. 

out  danger  of  knocking  his  skull,  and  inflicting  serious 
injury.  There  are  stalls  in  country  barns  so  low  that  a 
horse  cannot  throw  up  his  head  without  receiving  a 
blow  against  the  beams  above.  Animals  undoubtedly 
acquire  the  trick  of  pulling  back,  or  of  making  a  sud- 
den spring  when  passing  a  door-way,  from  having  been 
obliged  to  run  the  gauntlet  of  some  narrow,  low,  ill- 
contrived  passage-way.  The  man  who  should  now  be 
guilty  of  building  in  this  way  would  deserve  to  have  his 
own  brains  knocked,  every  time  he  passes  in  and  out,  as 
a  gentle  reminder  of  his  folly.  All  barn-doors  should 
be  high,  wide,  and,  when  practicable,  always  slide. 

The  common  mode  of  securing  cattle  in  the  barn, 
especially  milch  cows,  by  placing  their  necks  between 
stanchions,  is  not  to  be  advocated,  especially  when  they 
are  confined  in  this  way  for  many  hours  at  a  time  with- 
out relief,  as  is  often  necessary  in  the  winter  season.  A 
simple  chain  about  the  neck  with  a  ring  upon  an  upright 
post  affords  perfect  security,  while  it  gives  the  animal 
freedom  of  movement  to  head  and  limbs — and  conduces 
to  its  comfort  in  various  other  ways.  Animals  should 
not  be  overcrowded,  as  is  too  often  the  case  in  large 
dairy  establishments — a  fact  which  will  make  itself 
evident  sooner  or  later  in  the  sanitary  qualities  of  the 
milk,  if  in  no  other  manner.  We  cannot  deny  the 
fact,  if  we  would,  that  everything,  however  trifling, 
that  contributes  to  the  welfare  of  our  domestic  animals 
is  a  gain  to  the  owner  of  them  pecuniarily,  and  what 
touches  a  man's  pocket  is  generally  considered  to  be 
worth  looking  after,  at  all  times  and  in  all  places. 


HOG-KILLING  IMPLEMENTS— RINGING. 

The  stout  table  on  which  the  dead  porkers  are  lain  to 
be  scraped  and  dressed  after  being  scalded,  is  made  with 


FAEM   COKVENIEKCES. 


73 


its  top  curving  about  four  inches  in  a  width  of  four  feet, 
and  consisting  of  strips  of  oak  plank,  as  represented  in 
figure  52.     This  curved  top  conforms  to  the  form  of  the 


Fig.  53.— A   DRESSING    TABLE. 

carcass,  and  holds  it  in  any  desired  position  better  than 
a  flat  surface.  For  scrapers,  old-fashioned  iron  candle- 
sticks are  used  ;  the  curved  and  sufficiently  sharp  edges 


HANDY  MEAT   CLEAVBH 


at  either  end  serving  as  well  as  a  scraper  made  for  the 
purpose,  and  its  small  end  has  an  advantage  over  the 
latter  for  working  about  the  eyes  and  other  sharp  de- 
pressions. A  cleaver  for  use  in  cutting  up  the  pork  is 
shown  in  figure  53;  it  has  a  thirteen-inch  blade,  three 
inches  wide  at  the  widest  part,  and  one-quarter  inch 
thick  at  the  back.  This  is  a  convenient  implement,  easily 
and  cheaply  made  by  a  good  blacksmith,  if  it  cannot  be 


74  FARM   COKVEKIEKCES. 

had  at  the  stores  ;  any  mechanic  can  put  on  the  wooden 
handle.  In  figure  54  is  represented  a  home-made  hog- 
ringing  apparatus.  The  blacksmith  makes  an  instru- 
ment resembling  a  horse-shoe  nail,  of  good  iron,  about 
three  inches  long,  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  wide,  and 
one-thirty-second  of  an  inch  thick,  tapering  to  a  point ; 
the   '^  head  "  is  merely  the  broad   flat  end  curled  up. 


Fig.  54.— HOG-RI>GER  A>'D  KEY. 

Just  before  using,  this  needle-like  instrument  has  its 
corners  rubbed  off  on  a  file  ;  it  then  is  easily  pushed 
through  the  septum  of  the  pig's  nose.  A  key  with  its 
tongue  broken  off  and  a  slot  filed  in  the  end,  is  used  to 
curl  up  the  projecting  end,  and  the  ringing  is  done. 
The  ^^rings"  cost  about  seyenty-five  cents  a  hundred, 
and  are  effective  and  easily  applied. 


HOW  TO  MIX  CEMENT. 

The  article   to  be  used    is  the   Rosendale   cement. 
This   is  nearly  as  good  as  the  imported   Portland  ce- 


FAR3I  CONVEKIEKCES.  75 

ment,  and  much  cheaper.  The  cement  is  made  from 
what  is  known  as  hydraulic  lime-stone — that  is  a  rock 
which  contains,  besides  ordinary  lime-stone,  some  clay,  sil- 
ica, and  magnesia.  Pure  lime-stone  contains  only  lime 
and  carbonic  acid,  in  the  proportions  of  fifty-six  parts 
of  the  former  to  forty -four  of  the  latter  in  one  hundred. 
When  this  stone  is  burned,  the  carbonic  acid  is  driven 
off  by  the  heat,  and  pure  or  quick-lime  is  left.  When 
this  is  brought  in  contact  with  water,  the  two  combine, 
forming  hydrate  of  lime  ;  during  the  combination,  heat 
is  given  out ;  the  operation  is  called  slaking.  When  the 
water  is  just  sufficient  to  form  the  combination,  a  fine, 
dry  powder  is  produced,  which  we  call  dry  slaked-lime. 
When  the  water  is  in  excess,  the  surplus  is  mixed  me- 
chanically with  the  lime,  and  forms  what  is  called  the 
milk  of  lime,  or  cream  of  lime,  according  to  its  consist- 
ence ;  it  is  this  pasty  substance  wliich  we  mix  with 
sand,  to  form  building  mortar.  But  when  we  have  clay 
mixed  in  a  certain  proportion,  either  naturally  or  arti- 
ficially, with  the  lime-stone,  and  this  stone  or  mixture 
is  burned  in  the  same  manner  as  ordinary  lime-stone,  we 
get  what  is  known  as  hydraulic  lime,  because  it  combines 
with  a  much  larger  proportion  of  w^ater  than  pure  lime, 
and  in  combining  with  it,  instead  of  falling  to  powder, 
like  ordinary  lime,  it  hardens  into  stone  again.  This 
hardening  takes  place  even  under  water ;  the  hydraulic 
lime  combines  with  just  so  much  water  as  is  required  to 
^'sefc^'  or  harden,  and  leaves  the  remainder.  It  pos- 
sesses this  property,  also,  when  mixed,  with  sand  in  pro- 
per proportions,  and  when  so  mixed,  the  cement  will 
adhere  very  firmly  to  the  surface  of  any  stone  to  which 
it  may  be  applied.  This  property  is  made  available  in 
constructing  works  of  concrete,  which  consists  of  broken 
stone  mixed  with  such  a  quantity  of  cement,  that,  when 
it  is  packed  closely,  the  surfaces  of   all  the  pieces  of 


76 


FARM   CONVEKIEKCES. 


stone  are  brought  into  contact  with  the  cement,  and  the 
spaces  between  the  fragments  of  stone  are  filled  with  it. 
That  there  may  be  no  more  cement  used  than  is  actually 
needed,  the  mixture  is  rammed  down  solidly,  until  the 
fragments  of  stone  are  brought  into  close  contact  with 


Fig.  55. — BOX   fOK   M1XI>>G  CEMENT. 

each  other.  The  composition  of  the  impure  or  hydraulic 
lime-stoue,  which  behaves  in  this  useful  manner,  is,  in 
the  case  of  some  of  the  Kingston  stone,  as  follows  :  Car- 
bonic acid,  34.20  per  cent.;  lime,  25.50;  magnesia,  12.35  ; 
silica,  15.37;  alumina  (clay),  9.13  ;  and  peroxide  of  iron 
(which  is  useless  or  worse),  2.25.  On  account  of  this 
difference  in  character  betw^een  lime  and  cement,  a  dif- 
ferent treatment  is  necessary  for  each,  and  each  is  put  to 
different  uses.  The  cement  makes  a  much  harder  and 
more  solid  combination  with  sand,  and  is  therefore  chosen 


Fig.  56.— SIDE  OF  CEMENT  BOX. 

when  great  strength  is  required.  Its  rapid  setting,  when 
mixed  with  water,  also  requires  that  it  be  used  as  soon 
as  it  is  mixed,  and  renders  a  rapid  mixture  necessary. 
The  cement  and  sand  should,  therefore,  be  mixed  to- 
gether dry,  and  very  thoroughly.     Four  parts  of  sand 


FAEM   COKVENIEN'CES.  77 

to  one  part  of  cement  are  the  proportions  generally  used. 
These  may  be  mingled  in  a  box  of  suitable  character, 
and  the  mass  is  so  spread  as  to  have  a  hollow  in  the  cen- 
tre, into  which  water  is  poured.  The  sides  of  the  heap 
are  gradually  worked  into  the  water,  with  a  common 
hoe,  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  water  from  spread- 
ing about,  and  as  it  is  absorbed  more  water  is  poured 
in,  until  the  whole  is  brought  to  a  thin  semi-liquid  con- 
dition. A  box  very  suitable  for  this  operation  is  shown 
in  figure  55.  This  is  made  of  pieces  of  plank,  prepared 
as  follows  :  The  side  pieces  are  shown  at  figure  56.  The 
end  pieces  are  made  with  tenons,  which  fit  in  mortises 
in  the  side  pieces,  and  the  frame  thus  made  is  held  to- 


Fig.  57.— MACHINE    FOR    MIXING    CEMENT. 

gether  by  keys  driven  into  the  holes  seen  in  the  tenons. 
The  bottom  planks  are  fastened  together  with  cleats,  so 
placed  as  to  receive  the  frame  and  fit  snugly.  Iron  bolts 
are  put  through  holes  in  the  cleats,  and  through  the 
holes  in  figure  56,  and  by  means  of  nuts  with  washers 
under  them,  the  whole  box  is  brought  firmly  together. 
Such  a  box,  after  having  been  used  for  this  purpose,  will 
be  found  very  useful  for  mixing  feed  in  the  barn,  or  for 
many  other  purposes,  and  may,  therefore,  be  well  made 


78  FARM   CON^VEKTEKCES. 

at  the  first.  When  the  mortar  is  mixed,  the  broken 
stone  may  be  thrown  into  it,  beginning  at  one  side,  and 
the  whole  is  worked  up  thoroughly  with  the  hoe,  so  that 
every  piece  of  stone  is  coated  with  the  cement.  A 
machine,  that  is  easily  made,  may  be  used  for  this  mix- 
ing, and  is  also  yery  useful  for  mixing  ordinary  mortar 
for  building  or  plastering.  It  is  shown  in  figure  57.  It 
consists  of  a  box  set  upon  feet,  with  a  smaller  box  at- 
tached at  the  rear  end,  having  an  opening  at  the  bottom 
where  the  mortar  is  seen  escaping,  and  a  shaft,  having 
broad,  flat  arms  on  it,  placed  at  a  somewhat  acute  angle 
with  the  line  of  the  shaft,  so  that  they  will  operate  as  a 
screw  to  force  the  mass  along  the  spout  and  out  of  it  at 
the  opening.  A  crank  handle  is  fitted  to  this  shaft,  and 
if  a  fly-wheel  can  be  borrowed  from  a  feed-cutter,  or  a 
com-sheller,  and  attached  to  the  shaft  as  shown,  so 
much  the  better.  The  materials  to  be  mixed  are  thrown 
into  the  box,  and  by  turning  the  handle,  the  whole  will 
be  thoroughly  incorporated  vrith  great  rapidity  and  ease. 


RINGING  AND  HANDLING  BULLS. 

Now  that  more  attention  is  given  to  improving  farm 
stock,  a  bull  is  kept  upon  nearly  every  large  farm.  The 
high-bred  bulls  are  spirited  animals,  and  are  exceedingly 
dangerous  if  the  utmost  caution  is  not  exercised  in  man- 
aging them.  Experienced  breeders  are  not  unfrequently 
caught  unawares,  and  unceremoniously  lifted  over  the 
fence,  or  forced  to  escape  ingloriously  from  one  of  their 
playful  animals,  or  even  seriously  injured  by  the  vicious 
ones.  It  should  bo  made  a  rule,  wherever  a  bull  is  kept, 
to  have  him  ringed,  before  he  is  a  year  old,  and  brought 
under  subjection  and  discipline  at  an  early  age,  while  he 
can  be  safely  and  easily  handled.  Some  time  ago  we  as- 
sisted at  the  ringing  of  a  yearling  bull,  which  severely 


FARM    CO:NrVENIENCES. 


79 


taxed  the  utmost  exertions  of  six  persons  with  ropes  and 
stanchions  to  hold  him.  A  slip  of  the  foot  might  have 
caused  the  loss  of  a  life,  or  some  serious  injuries.  To 
ayoid  such  dangerous  struggles,  a  strong  frame,  similar 
to  that  in  figure  58,  in  which  to  confine  the  hull,  may 


STALL  rOR  BULL. 

be  used.  The  frame  consists  of  four  or  six  stout  posts 
set  deeply  in  the  ground,  with  side-bars  bolted  to  it, 
forming  a  stall  in  which  the  bull  can  be  confined  so  that 
he  cannot  turn  around.  The  frame  may  be  placed  in 
the  barn-yard  or  a  stable,  and  may  be  made  to  serve  as  a 
stall.  At  the  front,  a  breast-bar  should  be  bolted,  and 
the  upper  side-bars  should  project  beyond  this  for  eight- 
een or  twenty  inches.  The 
forward  posts  project  above 
the  side-bars  some  inches. 
The  ends  of  these  posts,  and 
the  side-bars,  are  bored  with 
one-inch  holes,  and  at  the 
rear  of  the  frame  there  should 
be  tenons  or  iron  straps  to 
receive  a  strong  cross-bar,  to 
prevent  the  animal  from  es- 
caping should  the  fastenings 
become    broken    or  loosened.  ^^8-  59.— stkap. 

The  bull,  led  into  the  frame,  is  placed  with  his  head 


80 


FARM  coxye:n^iekces. 


oyer  the  breast-bar,  and  the  horns  are  tied  with  ropes 
an  inch  in  diameter  to  the  holes  in  the  bars  and  posts. 
He  is  then  secured,  and  his  head  is  eleyated  so  that  the 
trochar  and  cannula  can  be  readily  used  to  pierce  the 
cartilage  of  the  nose,  and  the  ring  inserted  and  screwed 
together.  Before  the  ring  is  used,  it  should  be  tested 
to  ascertain  that  it  is  sound  and  safe. 

When  the  ring  is  inserted,  the  straps  shown  in  figure 
59  should  be  used,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  it  up  and 
out  of  the  way,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  feeding  of 
the  animal  until  the  nose  has  healed  and  become  cal- 
loused. The  straps  may  be  left  upon  the  head  perma- 
nently, if  desired,  when  the 
iront  strap  will  offer  a  con. 
Yenient  means  of  catching 
him  by  the  staff,  when  neces- 
sary to  do  so  in  the  field. 
The  staff  is  a  matter  of  the 
greatest  importance.  This 
should  be  made  of  the  tough- 
est ash  or  hickory,  and  not 
less  than  five  feet  long.  With 
a  staff  of  this  length,  the 
herdsman  can  check  the  wild- 
est bull,  and  by  resting  the 
butt-end  of  it  upon  the 
ground,  can  throw  the  ani- 
mal's head  up,  and  preyent 
him  from  approaching  too 
near.  The  hook  of  the  staff 
is  shown  of  two  kinds  in  figures  60  and  61.  One  is  fur- 
nished with  a  spring,  by  which  it  is  closed.  A  metal 
bar  attached  to  the  spring  and  passing  through  a  hole  in 
the  staff,  prevents  the  ring  from  slipping  along  the 
spring.  The  other  is  provided  with  a  screw  by  which  it 
is  closed. 


Fig.  60.  STAVES.  Fig.  61, 


FAEM   C0KVE]S[IE2i[CES. 


81 


SLED  FOR  REMOVING  CORN-SHOCKS. 

A  sled  used  for  moying  corn-shocks  from  a  field 
which  is  fco  be  sown  with  winter  grain  is  shown  in  figure 
62.  It  is  simply  a  sled  of  the  most  ordinary  construc- 
tion, and  which  any  farmer  can  build.  It  is  made  of 
two  joists  or  planks  of  hemlock,  though  oak  might  be 
better  ;  say  three  inches  thick,  a  foot  wide,  and  four- 
teen to  sixteen  feet  long,  rounded  at  one  end  and  con- 
nected by  three  strong  cross-pieces,  being  in  form  just 


Fig.   62. — SIDE    OF    SLED. 

such  a  sled  as  a  farmer  boy  would  make  to  use  in  the 
snow,  with  the  addition  of  cross  braces  before  and  be- 
hind. The  under  edge  of  the  runners  should  be  rounded 
off  to  the  extent  of  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches,  to  turn 
more  easily.  There  should  be  also  short  standards  be- 
fore and  behind.  The  runners  may  be  four  to  fiye  feet 
apart,  according  to  the  length  of  the  corn.  A  side  view 
of  the  runner  with  the  standards  is  given  in  figure  62, 


Fig.  63.— TOP  OF   SLED. 

and  a  top  yiew  of  the  complete  sled  in  figure  63.     First, 
cat  off  the  corn  and  put  it  in  shocks  in  the  usual  way, 
making  the  shock  smaller  than  usual.     Let  it  stand  thus 
4* 


82  FARM  CONVEKIEKCES. 

a  few  days  to  dry,  then  a  pair  of  horses  are  hitched  to  the 
sled,  which  is  driven  alongside  the  shock.  The  shock  is 
pushed  over  on  to  the  sled,  and  so  one  shock  after 
another  until  the  sled  is  full.  The  load  is  then  driven 
to  an  adjoining  field,  where  the  shocks  are  set  up  on  end 
again,  and  about  four  of  them  made  into  one  and  tied 
at  the  top,  or  reared  against  a  fence. 

The  particular  advantages  of  this  plan  are  :  First, 
that  by  use  of  the  sled  and  method  of  leading  and  un- 
loading the  shocks,  all  actual  lifting  of  the  corn  is 
avoided,  and  the  labor  and  expense  reduced  more  than 
one-half.  Second,  by  permitting  it  to  dry  a  few  days,  its 
weight  is  greatly  reduced,  and  the  handling  much 
lighter.  Third,  the  corn  being  partially  dried,  it  can  be 
put  together  in  larger  shocks  the  second  time,  and  will 
keep  better.  By  this  method  one  man  can  clear  two  acres 
or  more  in  a  day,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  crop. 


A  TAGGING    TROUGH. 

Sheep  should  be  tagged  in  early  spring,  and  a  table 
for  this  purpose  is  shown  in  figure  64.  The  sheep  is 
placed  on  this  table  feet  upwards,  in  which  position  it  is 
perfectly  helpless,  and  will  not  struggle.  Then  the 
soiled  wool  about  the  hind  parts,  the  belly,  or  the  legs  is 
clipped  off  with  great  ease,  less  than  a  minute  being 
needed  to  tag  a  sheep.  Half  time  will  serve  for  some 
shearers  to  do  this.  In  large  flocks  these  tables  will  be 
necessary,  and  those  who  have  small  ones  will  find  them 
very  useful. 


LIME  AND   LIME   KILNS. 

The  periodical  use  of  lime  as  a  fertilizer  is  necessary 
to  good   culture.     In  the  best  cultivated  parts  of  the 


FAEM   CONYEKIEKCES. 


83 


country,  lime  is  used  once  in  every  rotation  of  fiye  crops, 
the  usual  rotation  being  two  years,  grass,  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  or  rye,  seeded  to  grass  or  clover  again.  The  lime 
is  applied  to  the  land  when  it  is  plowed  for  the  fall  grain, 
and  is  harrov\^ed  in  before  the  seed  is  drilled,  or  it  is  har- 
rowed in  with  the  seed,  sown  broadcast.  The  quantity 
used  is  from  forty  to  fifty  bushels  per  acre.  The  eSect 
of  lime  is  both  mechanical  and  chemical ;  it  opens  and 


Fig.  64.— THOUGH  FOR  TAGGING  SHEEP. 


loosens  heavy  clays,  and  consolidates  light,  loose,  sand}^ 
or  peaty  vegetable  soils ;  it  has  the  effect  of  liberating 
potash  from  the  soil,  and  of  decomposing  inert  organic 
matter,  and  reducing  it  to  an  available  condition.  But 
while  it  is  beneficial,  it  cannot  be  used  alone  without 
exhausting  the  soil  of  its  fertile  properties.  This  is  evi- 
dent from  what  has  been  said  of  its  character  ;  at  least 
this  is  true,  so  far  as  regards  its  effects  beyond  affording 
directly  to  the  crops  any  lime  that  they  may  appropriate 
from  the  supply  thus  given.  All  the  benefits  received 
beyond  this  is  a  direct  draft  on  the  natural  stores  of  the 
soil.     It  is  therefore  necessary,  to  good  agriculture,  that 


84 


FAEM   COKVEKIENCES. 


either  a  thrifty  clover  sod  should  be  plowed  under,  at 
least  once  in  the  rotation,  or  that  a  liberal  dressing  of 
manure  be  given,  or  both  of  these.  In  those  localities 
where  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  skilful  use  of 
lime  are  best  known  and  appreciated,  this  method  is 
practised  ;  a  heavy  sod  being  plowed  under,  after  having 
been  pastured  one  year,  for  the  corn,  and  a  good  coating 
of  manure  being  given  when  the  land  is  plowed  for  fall 
grain.  Under  such  treatment,  the  soil  is  able  to  main- 
tain itself  and  return  profitable  crops.     It  is  not  where 


Fig.   65. — IMPROVED   LIME  KIL>f  AVITH   ELEVATED   TRACK. 

this  course  is  pursued  that  complaints  are  prevalent  of 
the  unprofitableness  of  farming.  The  use  of  lime  is 
spreading  gradually  into  the  Western  States,  where  the 
competition  of  the  still  farther  and  fresher  western  fields 
is  being  severely  felt.  The  experience  of  Eastern  farm- 
ers is  now  being  repeated  in  what  were  once  the  West- 
ern States,  and  every  appliance  of  scientific  and  thorough 
agriculture  is  found  to  be  needed  to  maintain  those 
Western  farmers  in  the  close  contest  for  a  living.  This 
kiln,  figure  G5,  is  intended  to  stand  upon  level  ground, 
and  is  furnished  with  a  sloping  track,  upon  which  self- 


FAEM   COKVEKIENCES.  85 

dumping  cars  containing  fuel  or  lime  may  be  drawn  up 
by  liorse-power  with  a  rope  and  pulleys.  The  body  of 
the  kiln  may  be  twenty  feet  square  at  the  bottom,  and 
thirty  feet  high,  with  a  flue  above  the  stack  of  ten  to 
twenty  fset.  The  stack  may  be  built  of  stone  or  brick, 
but  should  be  lined  with  fire-brick  or  refractory  sand- 
stone. The  arch  is  protected  by  the  shed  under  the 
track.  At  B,  B,  are  two  bearing  bars  of  cast-iron,  three 
by  two  inches  thick,  which  support  the  draw-bars,  C. 
These  are  made  of  one  and  a  half  inch  round  wrought 
iron,  having  rings  at  the  outer  end,  and  of  which  there 
are  four  to  the  foot  across  the  throat  of  the  kiln,  which 
is  four  or  five  feet  in  diameter.  The  rings  serve  to  ad- 
mit a  crow-bar,  by  which  the  bars,  or  some  of  them,  are 
drawn  out  to  let  down  the  charge  of  lime.  The  open 
space,  D,  is  intended  for  the  insertion  of  the  bar  to 
loosen  or  break  the  lime,  should  the  throat  become  gorged. 
A  cast-iron  frame,  with  an  aperture  of  three  by  twenty- 
four  inches,  is  built  into  this  opening.  It  also  serves  to 
kindle  the  kiln,  and  is  closed  by  an  iron  door.  The  car 
should  be  made  of  wood,  and  lined  with  sheet-iron  ;  it  is 
hinged  to  the  front  axle,  and  hooked  to  the  draft-rope, 
so  that  when  the  fore-wheels  strike  the  block,  E,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  kiln,  the  car  tips  and  dumps  its  load.  The 
iron  door,  F,  which  closes  the  kiln,  is  raised  or  lowered 
by  means  of  the  rope  and  ring,  G,  which  passes  over  a 
pulley  fixed  upon  the  side  of  the  flue.  A  covered  shed 
will  be  needed  to  protect  the  top  of  the  stack,  and  a  gal- 
lery should  be  made  around  it,  for  a  passage-way  for  the 
workmen.  This  kind  of  kiln  is  suited  only  for  the 
use  of  coal  as  fuel ;  when  wood  is  used  for  burning 
the  lime,  common  pits  or  temporary  kilns  are  to  be 
constructed. 


86  FARM   CONVEN-IENCES. 

FALL  FALLOWING. 

The  old  practice  of  summer  fallowing,  or  working  the 
soil  for  one  year  without  a  crop,  for  the  purpose  of  gain- 
ing a  double  crop  the  second  season,  is  now,  yerj  properly, 
obsolete.  While  some  may  question  the  propriety  of  this 
opinion,  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  yalue  of  fall 
fallowing.  The  constant  turning  and  working  of  the 
ground  during  the  fall  months  cost  nothing  but  time 
and  labor,  at  a  season  when  these  cannot  be  otherwise 
employed,  and  so,  in  reality,  cost  nothing.  But  the 
benefits  to  the  soil  are  very  considerable.  Especially  is 
this  the  case  with  heavy  clay  soils,  and  less,  in  a  descend- 
ing ratio,  through  the  gradations  from  heavy  clay  down 
to  light  loams — at  least  it  is  so  considered  by  many  ; 
and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  if  the  atmospheric 
effects  upon  the  particles  of  a  clay  soil  serve,  to  some 
extent,  to  dissolve  the  mineral  particles,  they  may  easily 
do  the  same  service  for  a  sandy  soil,  and  help  to  set  loose 
some  of  the  potash  contained  in  the  gi'anitic  or  feld- 
spathic  particles  of  such  a  soil.  The  mechanical  effects 
of  the  fall  working  are  certainly  more  useful  upon  clay 
than  a  light  loam  ;  but  there  are  other  purposes  to  serve 
than  merely  to  disintegrate  the  soil,  and  mellow  and 
loosen  it.  There  are  weeds  to  destroy,  and  the  forward- 
ing of  the  spring  work  by  the  preparation  of  the  ground 
for  early  sowing.  These  services  are  as  useful  for  a  light 
soil  as  a  heavy  one,  and  as  it  is  reasonable  to  look  for 
some  advantage  from  the  working  in  the  way  of  gain  in 
fertility  on  light  as  well  as  heavy  soils,  it  is  advisable 
that  owners  of  either  kind  should  avail  themselves  of 
whatever  benefits  the  practice  affords.  Fall  fallowing 
consists  in  plowing  and  working  the  soil  with  the  culti- 
vator or  the  harrow.  This  may  be  done  at  such  inter- 
vals as  may  be  convenient,  or  which  will  help  to  start 


FARM   COKVEKIENCES. 


87 


some  weeds  into  growth,  when  these  may  be  destroyed 
by  the  harrow  or  cultiyator.  Heayy  soils  should  be  left 
in  rough  ridges  at  the  last  plowing,  with  as  deep  furrows 
between  them  as  possible,  in  order  to  expose  the  largest 
surface  to  the  effects  of  frost  and  thaw.  Light  soils  may 
be  left  in  a  Jess  rough  condition,  but  the  last  plowing 
should  be  so  done  as  to  throw  the  furrows  on  edge,  and 
not  flat,  leaving  the  field  somewhat  ridged.  A  yery 
little  work  in  the  spring  will  put  the  ground  into  excel- 
lent order  for  the  early  crops,  and  for  spring  wheat, 
especially,  this  better  condition  of  the  soil  will  be  of  the 
greatest  benefit.  When  thus  treated  in  the  fall,  the  soil 
is  remarkably  mellow,  and  is  dry  enough  to  work  much 
earlier  than  the  compact  stubble  land  which  remains  as 
it  was  left  after  the  harvest.  As  to  the  time  for  doing 
this  work,  the  sooner  it  is  begun,  and  the  oftener  it  is 
repeated,  the  better.  It  is  not  too  late  to  finish  when 
the  ground  is  frozen  or  there  is  an  inch  of  snow  on  the 
ground. 


UNLOADING  CORN. 

Every  little  help  that  will  ease  the  troublesome  labor 
of  transferring  the  corn  crop  from  the  field  to  the  crib  is 


Fig.   66. — BOARD  FOR  UNLOADING. 

gratefully  accepted.     We  have  used  both  of  the  contri- 
vances here  shown  (figures  66  and  67),  to  help  in  getting 


88 


FAEM  conve:n-iexces. 


the  ears  out  of  the  wagon-box.  At  the  start  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  shovel  up  the  corn,  and  until  the  bottom  of  the 
wagon-box  is  reached,  the  shovel  or  scoop  cannot  be 
made  to  enter  the  load.  But  if  a  piece  of  wide  board  is 
placed  in  a  sloping  position,  resting  upon  the  tail-board 
of  the  wagon  (figure  66),  the  shovel  can  be  used  with  ease 


Fig,    67. — UNLOADING    AKRANGEMENT. 

at  the  commencement  of  the  unloading.  Another  plan 
is  to  make  the  box  two  feet  longer  than  usual,  and  place 
the  tail-board  two  feet  from  the  end,  figure  67.  When 
the  tail-board  is  lifted,  the  ears  slide  down  into  this  re- 
cess, from  which  they  can  be  scooped  with  ease. 


STONE  BOATS. 
For  moving  plows,  harrows,  etc.,  to  and  from  the  fields, 


Fig.  68.— PLANK   STONE  BOAT. 

and  for  many  other  purposes,  a  stone  boat  is  far  better 
than  a  sled  or  wagon,  and  is  many  times  cheaper  than 


FAEM   CONVEJ^IENCES.  89 

either.  Two  plans  of  construction  are  illustrated.  The 
boat  shown  in  figure  68  is  of  plank,  six  feet  in  length, 
one  foot  at  one  end  being  sawed  at  the  angle  shown. 
Three  planks,  each  one  foot  in  width,  will  make  it  of 
about  the  right  proportion.  A  railing  two  by  three 
inches  is  pinned  upon  three  sides,  while  a  plank  is 
firmly  pinned  at  the  front  end,  through  which  the  draw- 
bolt  passes.     That  shown  in  figure  69  has  some  advan- 


Fig.  69. — STONE   BOAT   WITH  KUNNERS. 

tage  oyer  the  former,  a  cheaper  quality  of  wood  and  of 
shorter  length  can  be  used,  and  when  one  set  of  runners 
is  worn  out,  others  can  be  readily  attached  without  de- 
stroying the  frame.  Oak  or  maple  plank  should  be  used 
for  the  best  boats,  and  when  runners  are  used,  the  tough- 
est wood  at  hand  should  be  selected.  Don't  think  be- 
cause it  is  only  a  stone  boat  it  is  not  worthy  of  being 
taken  care  of. 


A  DUMP-CART. 

The  dump-cart,  figure  70,  is  a  handy  contrivance,  a 
good  deal  used  in  some  parts  of  this  State,  and  is  simply 
an  ordinary  ox-cart,  the  tongue  shortened  and  fastened 
by  a  king  bolt  to  the  forward  axle  of  a  wagon,  as  shown 
in  the  engraving.  It  can  be  turned  very  short,  as  the 
wheels  liave  a  clear  swing  up  to  the  cart-tongue,  and  is 
very  convenient  for  hauling  anything  that  is  to  be 
dumped  :    such   as  stones,   earth,  wood,   manure,  etc. 


90  FAKM   CONVENIENCES. 

The  seat  of  an  old  mowing  macliine  is  fastened  to  the 


Fig.  70. — IMPKOVED   DUMP-CART. 

cart-tongue,  on  which  the  driver  sits.     Horses  or  oxeu 
may  be  used. 


TO   PREVENT  WASHING  OF  HILL-SIDES. 

Much  damage  is  done  by  the  washing  of  hill-sides  into 
deep  gullies  by  heavy  rains.  Where  sloping  ground  is 
cultivated  this  is  unavoidable,  unless  something  is  done 
to  prevent  it.  In  some  cases  deep  plowing  and  loosen- 
ing the  subsoil  will  go  far  to  prevent  washing,  as  it 
enables  the  water  to  sink  into  the  ground,  and  pass  away 
wdthout  damage,  by  slow  filtration.  But  where  the  sub- 
soil is  not  yery  porous,  and  when  the  rain  falls  copiously 
and  suddenly,  the  water  saturates  the  surface  soil  in  a 
few  minutes,  and  the  surplus  then  flows  down  the  slope, 
cutting  the  softened  earth  into  many  channels,  which  by 
and  by  run  together.     Then  the  large  body  of  water 


FAEM    CONVEKIEHCES.  91 

possesses  a  force  which  the  soil  cannot  resist,  and  carries 
the  earth  down  with  it,  often  doing  serious  and  irre- 
parable damage  in  an  hour  or  less.  Of  the  many  plans 
which  have  been  suggested  and  tried  to  prevent  this 
washing,  the  most  successful  is  the  terracing  of  the 
slope.  This  is  done  by  plowing,  with  a  swivel  plow, 
around  the  hill,  or  back  and  forth  on  the  slope,  com- 
mencing at  the  bottom  and  throwing  the  earth  down- 
wards in  such  a  manner  that  a  flat  terrace  is  formed, 
which  has  a  small  slope  backwards  from  the  front  of  the 
hill.  When  this  terrace  has  been  formed,  the  plowing 
is  commenced  ten  or  twelve  feet  above,  and  another 
terrace  is  made  in  the  same  manner.  This  is  continued 
to  the  top  of  the  slope.  If  thought  desirable,  the  inner 
furrows  on  each  terrace  may  be  made  to  form  a  water 
channel,  and  this  may  be  connected  with  the  channel  on 
the  next  slope  lower  down,  in  some  safe  manner,  either 
by  a  shute  of  boards  or  of  stone,  to  prevent  washing  of 
the  soil  at  these  points  where  the  fall  will  be  consider- 
able. This,  however,  is  a  side  issue,  which  does  not 
necessarily  belong  to  the  main  work.  The  arrangement 
of  the  hill-side  is  shown  in  figure   71,  in  which  the 


Fig.  71. — PROFILE   OF   A  TERRACED   HILL. 

original  outline  of  the  hill,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
terraces,  which  are  cut  out  of  it,  are  given.  When  a 
heavy  rain  falls  upon  the  terraced  hill,  the  effect  will  be 
to  throw  the  water  backwards  from  the  outer  slope,  into 
the  channels  at  the  rear  of  the  terraces  ;  and  there,  as 
well  as  upon  the  broad  surface  of  the  terraces,  there  is 


92 


FARM   COKVEi^IEKCES. 


abundant  means  of  escape  by  sinking  into  the  soil.  If 
not,  and  the  amount  of  water  is  too  great  to  be  thus  dis- 
posed of,  it  may  be  carried  down  the  slope,  by  arranging 
the  furrows  as  drains  in  the  way  previously  indicated. 
Hill-sides  of  this  character  should  be  kept  in  grass, 
when  the  slope  is  too  steep  for  comfortable  plowing, 
after  it  has  been  thus  arranged  ;  or  it  may  be  planted 
with  fruit  trees,  vines,  or  timber,  upon  the  slopes,  leay- 
ing  the  terraces  to  be  cultivated,  or  the  slopes  may  be 
kept  in  grass,  and  the  terraces  cultivated.  But  in  what- 
ever manner  the  ground  may  be  disposed  of,  it  would  be 
preferable  to  leaving  it  to  be  gullied  by  rains,  barren, 
useless,  and  objectionable  in  every  way. 


A  LOG  MINK-TRAP. 
A  mink-trap  is  made  by  boring  a  two-inch  or  two  and 


'2. — MINK-TRAP. 


a  half  inch  hole  in  a  log,  four  or  five  inches  deep,  and  into 
the  edges  of  this  hole  drive  three  sharpened  nails,  so  that 


FARM  CONVENIENCES.     .  93 

they  will  project  half  an  inch  or  so  inside,  as  shown 
in  figure  72.  The  bait  being  at  the  bottom,  the  mink 
pushes  his  head  in  to  get  it,  but  on  attempting  to  with- 
draw it  is  caught  by  the  nails.  Musk-rat  is  good  bait 
for  them,  and  a  highly  praised  bait  is  made  by  cutting 
an  eel  into  small  bits,  which  are  placed  in  a  bottle  and 
hung  in  the  sun,  and  after  a  time  become  an  oily  and 
very  odorous  mass.  A  few  drops  of  this  are  used.  The 
above  simple  mink-trap  may  be  made  by  using  any  block 
of  wood,  or  a  stump  of  a  tree,  large  or  small,  and  the 
same  plan  may  be  made  use  of  to  trap  skunks,  or,  by 
using  a  small  hole  and  some  straightened  fish-hooks,  it 
will  serve  to  catch  rats  or  weasels,  enemies  of  the  rural 
poultry  yard,  which  may  be  thinned  off  by  the  use  of 
this  trap. 


PLOWma  FROM  THE  INSIDE  OF  THE  FIELD. 

There  is  but  one  reason  why  plowing  should  not  be 
done  from  the  inside  of  the  field,  and  that  is,  the  imag- 
inary diflSculty  in  ^^  coming  out  right."  There  are  sev- 
eral points  in  favor  of  this  method  :  When  a  field  is 
plowed,  beginning  at  the  outside,  there  is  always  a  dead 
furrow  running  from  each  corner  to  the  centre  ;  besides 
this,  the  team  is  obliged  to  run  out,  and  turn  upon  the 
plowed  land  at  every  corner,  making  a  broad  strip  which 
is  much  injured  by  the  treading,  especially  if  the  land 
is  clayey  and  rather  moist.  By  beginning  at  the  middle, 
all  this  is  avoided ;  the  horses  turn  upon  unplowed  land, 
and  the  soil  at  each  plowing  is  thrown  towards  the  cen- 
tre of  the  field,  as  it  should  be.  There  is  no  difficulty 
in  finding  the  centre  of  the  field  from  which  to  begin 
the  plowing.  Suppose  we  have  a  rectangular  field  like 
the  one  shown  in  figure  73  ;  any  person  who  can  meas- 
ure by  pacing,  is  able  to  find  the  middle  of  the  ends. 


94 


FARM   COi^VEN^IElS^CES. 


A  D  and  B  C ;  the  points  K  and  L.  From  K, 
towards  L,  a  distance  equal  to  one-half  A  D,  which  gives 
the  point  E.  Also  the  same  distance  from  L,  towards 
K,  giving  F,  and  the  work  of  fixing  the  central  point  is 
done.  Run  a  furrow  from  A  and  D  to  E,  and  from  B 
and  C  to  F;  these  define  the  comers  and  assist  in  the 
turning  of  the  plow.     The  plowing  then  begins  by  back- 


Fig.  73.— PLAN  FOR  liECTANGULAR  FIELD. 

furrowing  from  E  to  F;  plowing  on  the  ends  as  soon  as 
possible.  After  the  work  has  progressed  for  a  time,  as 
far  as  indicated,  for  example,  by  the  dotted  lines,  G,  H, 

/,  J,  pace  from  the  furrow 
to  the  outside  (see  dotted 
lines),  at  or  near  each  end  of 
the  furrow,  as  a  correction, 
and,  if  necessary,  gauge  the 
plow  until  the  furrow  on  all 
sides  is  equally  distant  from 
the  boundary.  When  the 
field  is  of  irregular  shape,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  begin  in 
\  the  centre  and  plow  outward 
~~^ — in   fact,  this  system   is   of 

Fig.  74.— PLAN  FOR  IRREGULAR  ,       •       '         .  i  i 

FIELD.  most    importance    here,    be- 

cause all  the  short  turning  in  the  middle  of  the  field. 


FARM   COITVEKIENCES.  95 

incident  to  the  irregularity  of  the  field,  comes  on  un- 
plowed  ground. 

In  figure  74  we  hare  a  piece  of  very  irregular  shape. 
From  a  point  on  A  D,  at  right  angles  to  B,  pace  the 
distance  to  B,  and  place  a  stake  at  the  middle  point,  E. 
In  the  same  way,  determine  the  point  i^  on  the  line 
N  D.  In  a  line  with  E,  F,  measure  from  ^a  distance 
equal  to  M  E  (one-half  the  perpendicular  distance 
across  the  end  of  field),  and  also  in  like  manner 
determine  the  point  F — which  gives  the  central  line, 
E  F.  The  plow  should  be  run  from  the  four  corners,  as 
in  the  first  case,  to  make  the  corner  lines.  The  plow- 
man will  use  his  judgment,  and  plow  only  upon  the 
lower  portion  at  first,  until  the  plowed  land  takes  the 
shape  G,  H,  J,  J,  when  the  correction  is  made.  From 
this  time  on  the  furrow  runs  parallel  w^ith  the  boundary, 
and  the  work  continues  smoothly  to  the  end. 


A  WIRE-FENCE  TIGHTENER. 

Having  occasion  recently  to  tighten  some  wires  in  a 
trellis,  we  made  use  of  the  following  contrivance.     Into 


Fig.   75.— WIRE   TIGHTENER. 

a  small  piece  of  wood  a  few  inches  long  we  put  two 
screws  about  three  inches  apart,  and  near  to  one  end  one 
other  screw,  leaving  the  heads  projecting  about  half  an 
inch.  By  placing  the  wire  between  the  two  scrcAvs,  and 
turning  the  piece  of  wood  around,  the  wire  was  drawn 
tight ;  and  by  engaging  the  head  of  the  single  screw 
upon  it,  the  tension  was  maintained.     The  operation  of 


96  FAEM   CONVEJ^IEKCES. 

the  contriyance  is  shown  at  1,  and  the  method  of  arrang- 
ing the  screws  or  pins  appears  as  2.  By  using  a  strong 
piece  of  wood  two  feet  long,  and  strong  iron  bolts,  fast- 
ened with  nnts  upon  the  back  side,  this  device  may  be 
used  to  tighten  fence  wires. 


PLANTING  CORN— A  MARKER. 

What  would  be  thought  of  a  mechanic  who  should  rip 
his  boards  from  a  log  with  the  old-fashioned  whip  saw 
and  plane  them  or  match  them  by  hand,  or  who  should 
work  out  his  nails  on  the  anvil  one  at  a  time  by  hand 
labor  ?  He  would  hardly  earn  enough  to  find  himself 
in  bread  alone.  Yet  in  an  equally  old-fashioned,  costly, 
and  unprofitable  way  do  thousands  of  farmers  plant  and 
cultivate  their  corn  crops.     The  ground  is  plowed,  bar- 


Fig.    76.— liUNNER  AND   TOOTH  FOR  MARKER. 

rowed  and  marked  out  both  ways,  either  with  the  plow, 
or  sometimes  by  a  quicker  method,  with  a  corn  marker. 
The  seed  is  dropped  by  hand  and  covered  by  hand  with 
a  hoe  ;  the  crop  is  hoed  by  hand  or  plowed  in  the  old 
method,  leaving  the  ground  ridged  and  deeply  furrowed, 
so  that  in  a  dry  season  the  corn  suffers  for  want  of  moist- 
ure.     All  this  costs  so  much  that  the  farmer's  labor 


PAEM   CONVENIENCES.  97 

brings  him  abont  fifty  cents  a  day,  upon  which  he  lives, 
grumbling  that  *^ farming  does  not  pay."  This  method 
would  be  ruinous  in  the  West  where  corn  is  a  staple  crop, 
and  that  it  is  not  so  in  the  East  is  simply  because  it  is 
not  grown  to  a  large  extent.  But  there  is  no  crop  that 
may  be  grown  so  cheaply  and  easily  in  the  East  that  pro- 
duces so  much  feed  as  corn.  Fifty  bushels  of  corn  and 
four  tons  of  fodder  per  acre  contain  more  dry  nutriment 
than  thirty  tons  of  turnips  or  mangels,  and  may  be  grown 
with  less  labor  and  less  cost,  if  only  the  best  methods 
are  employed.  Now,  with  the  excellent  implements  and 
machines  that  are  in  use  for  planting  and  cultivating 
corn,  no  farmer  can  afford  to  work  this  crop  in  the  old- 
fashioned  method.  There  is  no  longer  any  need  to  plant 
in  squares,  for  the  crop  may  be  kept  perfectly  clean 
when  planted  in  drills,  if  the  proper  implements  are 
used.     There  are  several  corn  planters  by  which  the  seed 


Fig.    77.— THE   MARKER   AT   WORK. 

may  be  dropped  and  covered  at  the  same  time  in  single 
or  double  drills,  at  the  rate  of  eight  to  twenty  acres  per 
day.  By  using  the  Thomas  harrow  a  few  days  after 
planting,  every  young  weed  will  be  killed,  and  the  crust, 
which  so  often  gathers  upon  the  surface,  will  be  broken 
up  and  the  surface  mellowed.  The  harrow  may  be  used 
without  damage  until  the  corn  is  several  inches  high. 
Then  anyone  of  the  many  excellent  horse  hoes  may  be 
used  by  which  the  weeds  may  be  cut  out  of  the  rows  close 
5  ._  ' 


98  FAEM   CO>"VEKIEKCES. 

to  the  corn  until  the  crop  is  so  high  that  farther  working 
is  useless.  This  method  of  cultivation  may  cost  two  dol- 
lars per  acre,  or  less,  as  the  ground  may  have  been  kept 
free  from  weeds  in  preyions  years,  while  on  the  old-fash- 
ioned system  it  may  cost  ten  dollars  per  acre,  or  more,  as 
the  weeds  may  have  been  allowed  to  get  further  ahead. 
Kevertheless,  there  are  farmers  who  will  still  work  on 
the  hand-to-mouth  plan,  and  will  still  mark  out  their 
crops  by  a  marker  and  drop  the  seed  by  hand.  For  these 
it  will  be  convenient  to  have  at  least  a  good  marker.  It 
will  mark  uneven  as  well  as  level  ground  ;  it  can  be  set 
to  any  width  between  rows  ;  any  farmer  or  smart  boy 
can  make  it,  and  the  inventor,  who  is  a  farmer  in  Can- 
ada, does  not  propose  to  patent  it.  The  marker  is  made 
of  two  by  four  scantling,  one  piece  being  eight  feet  long. 
In  this  five  holes  are  bored,  one  for  each  of  the  runners, 
one  and  one-eighth  inch  in  diameter.  The  runners  are 
also  of  tAVO  by  four  timber,  and  eighteen  inches  long. 
Holes  one  and  one-eighth  inch  in  diameter  are  bored 
through  the  runners,  in  which  are  placed  hard  wood 
pins  fourteen  inches  long.  These  are  driven  in  from  the 
bottom,  the  ends  being  left  broad,  so  that  they  may  not 
pass  through  the  holes,  and  projecting  an  inch  and  a 
half.  This  is  shown  in  figure  76.  The  small  pin  which 
passes  through  the  larger  one  serves  to  connect  the  run- 
ner with  the  principal  timber,  and  by  shifting  the  large 
pin  from  one  hole  to  another,  the  runners  may  be  brought 
from  four  feet  to  one  foot,  or  even  six  inches  apart,  and 
made  to  mark  rows  of  widths  increasing  by  spaces  of  six 
inches  up  to  four  feet.  When  one  of  the  markers  meets 
with  an  obstruction  it  is  lifted  by  it,  as  seen  in  figure  77, 
and  passes  over  it.  A  guide  marker  is  fixed  by  a  hinge 
to  one  of  the  outside  runners,  and  carries  a  scraper  which 
is  held  in  place  by  a  pin,  by  moving  which  the  distance 
of  the  next  row  may  be  regulated.  A  pair  of  light  shafts 


FAKM   COKVENIEiq^CES.  99 

may  be  attaclied  to  the  marker,  and  a  pair  of  handles  by 
which  it  may  be  guided. 


FEED  TROUGH  AND  HALTER. 

The  trough  rests  on  the  floor  and  is  four  fee.t  long. 
A,  A,  are  inch  auger  holes ;  a  rope,  four  feet  long,  is  put 
through  them  and  tied.     Another  rope^  D,  lias  a  ring 


Fig.  78.— FEED  TROUGH  AND  HALTER. 

spliced  on  one  end,  and  a  *^ snap-hook"  on  the  other. 
The  longer  rope  passes  through  the  ring,  B,  and  when 
the  rope,  Z>,  is  put  over  the  neakof  the  cow,  the  ''snap," 
C,  hooks  into  the  ring.  This  allows  the  animal  to  stand 
or  lie  down  with  comfort. 


THE  HORSE-SHOE  AND  ITS  APPLICATION. 

Any  excess  of  growth  at  tlie  toe  renders  the  jmsterns 
more  oblique,  and,  as  a  consequence,  throws  undue 
weight  upon  the  ''back  sinews,"  whereas,  too  great 
height  of  heels  has  a  similar  effect  upon  the  Joints  cf 
the  extremities,  by  rendering  them  too  upright.  Tak- 
ing as  our  guide  the  foot  of  the  animal  that  has  never 
been  brought  to  the  forge,  and  which,  in  consequence, 
must  be  considered  as  a  correct  model,  let  the  external 


100  FAKM   COKVE]!^IEKCES. 

wall  of  the  hoof  be  reduced  by  means  of  the  rasp  to  a 
level  with  the  firm  nupared  sole.  If  there  is  no  growth 
of  the  external  wall  beyond  this  level,  then  there  is 
nothing  to  be  removed. 

In  the  selection  of  a  shoe  for  the  healthy  foot,  we 
must  bear  in  mind  the  object  in  view,  which  is  to  pro- 
tect the  parts  from  excessive  wear.  This  protection  is 
to  be  found  in  a  metallic  rim  of  proper  size  and  shape, 
securely  adjusted.  Almost  every  shoe  in  common  use 
meets  this  end  more  or  less  satisfactorily,  and  we  have 
already  remarked  that  the  proper  preparation  of  the  foot 
that  has  been  previously  shod  is  of  vastly  more  impor- 
tance than  the  particular  kind  of  shoe  to  be  adopted. 
At  the  same  time,  there  are  faults  in  the  shoe  most  com- 
monly emjoloyed,  which  had  their  origin  in  its  particular 
adaptation  to  the  foot  after  this  had  undergone  more 
or  less  severe  mutilation  at  the  hands  of  the  farrier,  and 
which  have  been  retained  more  through  custom  than 
through  actual  necessity,  as  we  have  reason  to  hope. 
The  most  prominent  of  these  faults  consists  in  extreme 
narrowness  of  rim  with  a  concavity  upon  the  upper  or 
foot  surface,  in  order  to  prevent  the  sole  from  sus- 
taining least  weight  or  pressure,  which  it  is  perfectly 
unfitted  to  do  after  being  ^^ared  down  to  a  point  of  sensi- 
tiveness. In  a  state  of  nature  Ave  know  tliat  every  por- 
tion of  the  foot  comes  to  the  ground  and  sustains  its 
share  of  weight,  and  in  the  shod  state  it  sliould  do  the 
same,  as  far  as  practicable.  Hence,  the  shoe  should  be 
constructed  with  its  upper  surface  perfectly  flat,  and 
with  a  breadth  sufficient  to  j)rotect  a  jDortion  of  the  sole, 
and  to  sustain  weight.  It  should  be  bevelled  upon  the 
ground  surface,  in  imitation  of  the  concavity  of  the  sole, 
and  not  upon  its  upper  surface,  where  the  sj)ace  thus 
formed  serves  as  a  lodging  place  for  small  stones  and 
other  foreign  bodies.     In  shape  it  should  follow  the  ex- 


TAEM   COKVEiq^IEl^CES. 


101 


act  oufcline  of  the  outer  wall,  being  narrowed  at  the  heels, 
but  continued  of  the  same  thickness  throughout.  The 
lateral  projection  at  the  quarters,  and  the  posterior  one 
at  the  heels  are  unsightly,  of  no  benefit,  and  should 
never  be  allowed  where  speed  is  required. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  FISHING  SCOW. 

Boat-building  should  be  done  during  the  winter,  when 
in-door  work  is  more  agreeable,  and  leisure  is  more 
ample,  than  in  the  summer.  A  boy  who  can  handle 
tools,  may  make  a  yery  handsome  boat  or  scow,  such  as 


Fig.  79. — VIEW    OF   FISHING   SCOW. 

is  shown  at  figure  79,  at  a  cost  of  five  dollars  or  less,  in 
the  following  manner.  Procure  five  three-quarter  or 
half-inch  clear  pine  boards,  twelve  feet  in  length  and 
eight  inches  wide  ;  four  boards  ten  feet  long,  one  inch 
thick,  and  one  foot  wide,  and  three  strips  ten  feet  long, 
one  and  a  quarter-inch  thick,  and  three  inches  wide. 
Plane  all  these  smoothly  on  both  sides,  and  have  them 
all  free  from  loose  knots  or  shakes.  Cut  two  of  the  one- 
inch  boards  sloping  at  each  end  to  a  straight  line  for  two 
feet,  and  then  slightly  rounding  the  middle  of  the  board. 
Cut  two  pieces  of  the  one  and  a  quarter-inch  strips  into 
lengths  of  two  feet  ten  inches,  and  nail  them  to  the 
ends  of  the  side-boards,  as  shown  in  figure  80.  If 
strips  of  soft  brown  paper  are  dipped  into  tar  and  placed 


1(M  FARM   COIi^VEKIEKCES. 

between  the  joints,  tbej  will  be  made  closer  and  more 
water-tight.  Cut  the  eight-inch  boards  into  three  feet 
lengths,  and  nail  them  across  the  bottom,  as  shown  in 
figure  80  ;  where  the  bevel  ends,  the  two  bottom  boards 
must  be  bevelled  slightly  upon  one  of  their  edges,  so  as 
to  make  a  close  joint.     Then  take  two  of  the  one  and 


Fig.  80. — PUTTING   ON    THE   BOTTOM. 

a  quarter-inch  strips,  and  make  cuts  in  each  on  one  sido 
with  the  saw,  one  inch  deep,  as  follows  :  measuring  from 
one  end,  n^rk  with  a  pencil  across  the  strip  three  feet 
six  inches  from  the  end ;  then  mark  again  across  the 
strip  one  inch  and  a  half  from  the  first  mark,  and  score 
between  these  marks  with  an  x .  Then  measure  three 
inches  and  make  another  mark,  and  then  an  inch  and 
a  half  and  make  still  another  mark,  and  score  as  before 
between  these  last  two  with  an  x .  Then  do  precisely 
the  same  on  the  same  side  of  the  strip,  measuring  from 
the  other  end.  Then  on  the  edges  of  the  board  score  with 
gauge  or  make  a  line  with  a  pencil  exactly  one  inch  from 
the  marked  side.  Then  make  the  cuts  on  the  pencil 
lines  down  to  the  score  on  the  edge,  just  one  inch  deep, 
but  no  more.  Cut  away  the  wood  in  the  places  that 
\fere  marked  with  an  x ,  leaving  four  slots  one  inch  and 
a  half  wide,  one  inch  deep,  and  with  three  inches  be- 
tween them  upon  each  strip.  Nail  these  strips  with  the 
cut  side  inwards,  to  the  npper  edge  of  the  side-board, 
on  the  outside  of  the  boat,  as  seen  in  figure  81.  The 
spaces  left  in  the  gunwales  are  for  the  rowlocks.     The 


FARM   COKVEKIEKCES. 


103 


strips  should  be  well  nailed  near  the  rowlocks,  and  if 
a  quarter-inch,  flat-headed,  counter-sunk  carriage-bolt 
were  used  on  each  side  of  them,  it  would  be  yery  much 
better  than  so  many  nails.  A  thin  washer,  or  burr, 
should  be  used  beneath  the  nut  of  each  bolt.  The  row- 
lock pins  should  be  made  of  hard  maple  or  oak,  in  the 
shape  shown  at  a,  figure  81.  They  are  one  inch  thick, 
one  and  a  half  inch  wide  at  the  lower  part,  which  fits 
into  the  slot,  with  a  shoulder  of  half  an  inch,  and  the 
top  is  bevelled  off  neatly  as  shown.     The  seats,  of  which 


Fig.  81.  — INTERIOR    OF  BOAT. 

there  are  tw^o,  are  made  ten  inches  wide.  The  cleats  for 
the  seats,  one  inch  thick,  one  and  a  half  inch  wdde,  and 
ten  inches  long,  are  nailed  three  inches  below  the  upper 
edge  of  the  side-board.  The  middle  seat  goes  exactly 
in  the  centre  of  the  boat,  with  each  edge  four  feet  seven 
inches  from  the  end  of  the  boat.      The  end  seats  are 


104  FARM   COKVEKIENCES. 

placed  with  the  backs  two  feet  from  the  ends  of  the 
boat,  leaving  eight  inches  between  each  seat  and  the 
edge  of  the  rowlock  nearest  to  it.  There  are  cleats  for 
three  seats,  but  only  two  seats  are  used  at  once.  When 
one  seat  is  used,  the  rower  sits  in  the  centre,  and  he  can 
use  either  of  the  rowlocks,  the  boat  being  double-bowed. 
When  two  seats  are  used,  one  person  only  rows  at  one 
time,  but  either  can  row  without  changing  seats,  and 
one  always  faces  to  the  direction  in  which  the  boat 
moyes.  This  arrangement  of  seats  is  very  convenient. 
Eighteen  inches  of  each  end  is  closed  in,  and  makes  a 
locker  for  holding  fish-lines,  hooks,  or  the  ^^ painter," 
which  is  a  light  rope  for  tying  up  the  boat  when  not  in 
use.  This  may  be  fastened  to  a  ring-bolt  or  a  hole 
bored  in  one  of  the  locker  covers.  The  long  bottom- 
board,  seen  in  figure  81,  eight  inches  wide  and  half  an 
inch  thick,  is  nailed  as  shown,  by  wrought  nails  driven 
from  the  outside  and  clinched  on  the  inside.  The  seat 
cleats  are  nailed  in  the  same  manner,  as  are  also  the^side 
strips.  Every  nail  is  counter-sunk  and  the  hole  filled 
up  with  putty.  The  seams  are  j)uttied  or  filled  with  a 
strijo  of  cotton  sheeting  pushed  in  with  the  blade  of  a 
dinner  knife.  If  the  joints  are  made  as  well  as  they  may 
be,  this  is  not  needed,  but  two  coats  of  paint  will  make 
all  tight.  The  inside  should  be  painted  lead-color, 
made  by  mixing  lampblack  with  white  paint  to  a  proper 
shade.  The  outside  may  be  painted  white  or  a  light- 
green,  with  the  gunwale  of  a  light- blue.  A  few  da3^s 
will  be  required  to  harden  the  paint  before  using  the 
boat.     None  but  seasoned  boards  should  be  used. 


CROWS  AND  SCARECROWS. 


Probably  there  is  no  point  upon  which  a  gathering  of 
half  a  dozen  farmers  will  have  more  positive  opinions 


FARM    COI^fyEKIEKCES.  105 

than  as  to  the  relations  of  the  crow  to  agriculture.  It 
is  likely  that  five  of  these  will  regard  the  bird  as  totally 
bad,  while  the  minority  of  one  will  claim  that  he  is  all 
good.  As  usual,  the  truth  lies  between  the  extremes. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  crow  loves  corn,  and  knows 
that  at  the  base  of  the  tender  shoot  there  is  a  soft,  sweel 
kernel.  But  the  black-coated  bird  is  not  altogether  a 
vegetarian.  The  days  in  which  he  can  pull  young  corn 
are  few,  but  the  larger  part  of  the  year  he  is  really  the 
friend  of  the  farmer.  One  of  the  worst  insect  pests  with 
which  the  farmer,  fruit-grower,  or  other  cultivator  has 
to  contend  is,  the  ''  White  Grriib,"  the  larva  of  the  '^^May 
Beetle,"  '^June  Bug,"  or  ^^  Dor-Bug."  It  is  as  well 
established  as  any  fact  can  be,  that  the  crow  is  able  to 
detect  this  grub  while  it  is  at  work  upon  the  roots  of 
grass  in  meadows  and  lawns,  and  will  find  and  grub  it 
out.  Eor  this  service  alone  the  crow  should  be  every- 
where not  only  spared,  but  encouraged.  We  are  too  apt 
to  judge  by  appearances  ;  when  a  crow  is  seen  busy  in  a 
field,  it  is  assumed  that  it  is  doing  mischief,  and  by  a 
constant  warfare  against,  not  only  crows,  but  skunks, 
owls,  and  others  that  are  hastily  assumed  to  be  wholly 
bad,  the  injurious  insects,  mice,  etc.,  that  do  the 
farmer  real  harm  have  greatly  increased.  Shortly  after 
corn  is  |)lantecl,  the  crows  appear,  and  are  destructive  to 
young  corn.  Some  assert  that  the  crow  pulls  up  the 
corn  plant  merely  to  get  at  the  grub  which  would  destroy 
it  if  the  bird  did  not.  How  true  this  may  be  we  do  not 
know,  but  as  the  corn  is  destroyed  in  either  case,  it  may 
be  as  well  to  let  it  go  without  help  from  the  crow.  The 
first  impulse  of  the  farmer,  when  he  finds  his  corn  puUed 
up,  is  to  shoot  the  crow.  This  we  protest  against.  Even 
admitting  that  the  crow  does  mischief  for  a  short  time, 
it  is  too  useful  for  the  rest  of  the  year  to  be  thus  cut 
down  in  active  life.  Let  him  live  for  the  good  he  has 
5^ 


106  FAEM   CONVENIEJ^CES.  "    '     " 

done  and  may  do.  It  is  vastly  better  to  keep  the  crows 
from  pulling  the  young  corn,  for  two  or  three  weeks, 
and  allow  them  all  the  rest  of  the  year  to  destroy  bugs 
and  beetles  in  astonishing  numbers.  The  corn  may  be 
protected  by  mean^  of  ^'  scarecrows,"  of  which  there  are 
several  very  effective  kinds.  Crows  are  very  keen,  and 
aro  not  easily  fooled ;  they  quickly  understand  the  or- 
dinai'y  ^^  dummy,''  or  straw  man,  which  soon  fails  to  be 
of  service  in  the  corn-field.  It  has  no  life,  no  motion, 
and  makes  no  noise,  and  the  crow  soon  learns  this  and 
comes  and  sits  upon  its  outstretched  arm,  or  pulls  the 
corn  vigorously  at  its  feet.  A  dead  crow,  hung  by  a 
swinging  cord  to  a  long  slender  pole,  is  recommended  as 
far  better  than  a  straw  man — as  it,  in  its  aj^parent  strug- 
gles to  get  away,  appeals  impressively  to  the  living  crow's 
sense  of  caution.  But  the  crow  may  not  be  at  hand  to 
be  thus  employed,  and  if  it  were,  the  farmer  cannot 
afford  to  kill  it.  Better  than  a  dead  crow  is  a  glass  bot- 
tle with  the  bottom  knocked  out,  which  may  be  done 
with  an  iron  rod.  The  bottle  is  suspended  to  an  elastic 
pole  by  a  cord  tied  around  its  neck  ;  the  end  of  the  cord 
should  extend  downward  into  the  bottle,  and  have  a  nail 
fastened  to  it  and  within  the  bottle,  to  serve  as  a  clapper. 
If  a  piece  of  bright  tin  be  attached  to  the  cord  extending 
below  the  bottomless  end  of  the  bottle,  all  the  better. 
A  slight  breeze  will  cause  the  tin  to  whirl,  and,  in  the 
motion,  cast  bright  reflections  rapidly  in  all  directions, 
while  the  nail  keeps  up  a  rattling  against  the  inside  of 
the  bottle.  An  artificial  ^^  bird,"  to  be  hung  in  the  same 
manner,  may  be  made  from  a  piece  of  cork — one  used  in 
a  pickle-jar — into  which  a  number  of  large  goose  or 
chicken  feathers  are  fastened  so  as  to  roughly  imitate  a 
dilapidated  bird.  A  rough  head  may  be  carved  and  put 
on,  to  make  the  deception  more  complete.  As  this 
"bird"  catches  the  wind,  it  will  "fly"  here  and  there 


FAEM  COKVENIEKCES. 


107 


in  a  peculiar  manner  not  at  all  enticing  to  the  corn- 
loving  crows. 


FLOOD  FENCE. 


The  weak  point  of  a  fence  is  where  it  crosses  a  stream  ; 
a  sudden  freshet  washes  away  loose  rails,  and  a  gap  is 


Fi^.    82. — A  FLOOD   GATE. 

left  through  which  trespassing  cattle  soon  find  a  passage. 
Many  devices  have  been  used.  The  one  shown  in  figure 
82  is  self-acting:  when  water  rises  high  enough,  it  opens, 
and  when  the  flood  falls  it  closes  again.  It  may  be  made 
of  rails,  bars,  or  fence  strips. 


CLEARING  SLOUGH  LAND. 

In  clearing  up  land  that  is  covered  with  tussocks  of 
coarse  grass  and  a  tough  sod,  and  digging  out  ditches 
to  drain  such  land,  mucli  useless  labor  may  be  given 
that  could  be  spared  by  skilful  work.  The  spade  is 
commonly  used  for  this  purpose,  but,  as  in  digging  dry 
ground,  this  slow  tool  may  be  replaced  to  very  great 
advantage  by  the  plow  and  the  horse-shovel.     In  work- 


108 


FARM   CO^'VEKIEKCES. 


ing  in  swamps  these  more  effective  tools  may  be  made 
available  in  many  cases.  To  cut  off  the  tussocks  with 
grub-hoes,  while  they  are  tough  in  the  summer  time,  is 
very  hard  and  slow  work  ;  but  if  a  common  horse-scraper 
is  used  they  can  be  torn  up,  or  cut  off,  with  the  greatest 
ease.  The  scraper  should  be  fui-nished  with  a  sharp 
steel-cutting  blade  in  the  front,  which  may  be  riveted 
on,  or  fastened  with  bolts,  so  that  it  may  be  taken  off 
and  ground  sharp.  If  there  are  wet  and  soft  places  the 
scraper  may  be  drawn  by  a  chain  of  sufficient  length  to 


Fig.  83. — THE  HORSE-SHOVEL  AT  WORK. 

keep  the  horse  upon  dry  ground,  as  shown  in  figure  83. 
This  plan  has  been  tried  by  the  writer  with  success,  and 
with  a  great  saving  of  time  and  expense  ;  the  digging  of 
a  pond  twenty  feet  wide  along  the  edge  of  a  swamp,  was 
performed  with  one  man,  a  boy,  a  team,  and  a  horse- 
shovel,  as  quickly  as  ten  men  could  have  done  it  with 
spades.  In  cutting  tough  swamjD,  the  plow  may  be  used 
to  break  up  the  surface  when  the  horse-shovel  will  re- 
move the  muck  very  fast.     If  the  swamp  is  wet,  and 


FARM   COKVEKIEKCES. 


109 


water  flows  in  the  excavatioia,  tlie  digging  may  still  be 
done  with  the  horse-scraper  by  adding  to  the  length  of 
the  handles  and  using  planks  upon  each  side  for  the 
man  to  stand  upon,,  and  planks  upon  the  inner  side  of 
the  excavation  for  the  scraper  to  slide  upon  with  its  load 
of  muck.  The  muck  maybe  thrown  in  heaps  on  the  side 
of  the  pond  or  ditches,  and  it  will  be  found  conyenient 
to  leave  it  upon  one  side  instead  of  in  a  continuous  heap, 
as  this  will  greatly  facilitate  its  final  disposal  in  what- 
ever way  that  may  be. 


HOW  TO  DRESS  A    BEEF. 

There  is  a  way  of  slaughtering  that  is  not  butchering, 
and  it  may  be  done  painlessly  by  taking  the  right  course. 
The  barn  floor  or  a  clean  grass-plot  in  a  convenient  spot 


Fig.  84. — THE   PROPER   PLACE   TO   STRIKE. 

will  be  a  suitable  jDlace  for  the  work.  To  fasten  the  an- 
imal, put  a  strong  rope  around  the  horns,  and  secure  the 
head  in  such  a  way  that  it  cannot  be  moved  to  any  great 
distance,  and  in  a  position  to  allow  a  direct  blow  to  be 
easily  given.  The  eyes  may  be  blinded  by  tying  a  cloth 
around  the  head  so  that  there  will  be  no  dodging  to 


110 


FARM   COKVEIJIENCES. 


avoid  the  stroke.  The  place  for  the  stunning  blow  is 
the  centre  of  the  forehead,  between  the  eyes  and  a  little 
aboye  them.  The  right  place  is  shown  at  a,  figure  84. 
The  best  method  is  to  fire  a  ball  from  a  rifle  in  the  exact 
spot,  and  this  may  be  done  safely  when  the  animal  is 
blinded,  by  holding  the  weapon  near  to  the  head,  so  that  a 
miss  cannot  be  made  ;  otherwise  a  blow  with  the  back  of  an 
axe  made  when  the  striker  is  on  the  right  side  of  the  animal, 
and  the  head  is  fastened  down  near  the  ground,  will  be 
equally  effective.  So  soon  as  the  animal  falls,  the  throat 
is  divided  with  a  cut  from  a  long,  sharp  knife  ;  no  jack- 
knife  should  be  used,  but  a  long,  deep,  sweeping  stroke 


Fig.  85.— liACK  FOR   A  CARCASS   OF   BEEF. 

which  reaches  to  the  vertebrae  as  the  head  is  held  back. 
This  divides  all  the  blood-vessels,  and  death  is  almost  in- 
stantaneous, but  at  any  rate  painless.  When  the  carcass 
has  been  freed  from  blood,  it  should  be  turned  on  its  back, 
and  the  skin  divided  from  the  throat  up  tlie  brisket, 
along  the  belly  to  the  legs,  and  up  the  legs  to  the  knees, 
where  the  joints  should  be  severed,  taking  care,  how- 
ever, to  cut  off  the  hind  feet  below  the   hock  joints 


FAEM   CONVENIENCES. 


Ill 


about  two  or  three  inches.  The  skin  is  then  stripped 
from  the  legs  and  belly,  and  as  near  to  the  back  as  may 
be  by  turning  the  carcass.  The  belly  is  then  opened, 
and  the  intestines  taken  out  5  the  brisket  is  cut  through, 
and  the  lungs  and  gullet  remoyed.  It  is  now  necessary 
to  raise  the  carcass.  This  is  done  on  the  rack,  the  for- 
ward legs  of  which  are  placed  on  each  side  of  the  car- 
cass, and  the  gambrels  are  placed  upon  the  hooks  shown 
in  figure  85.  The  legs  of  the  rack  are  then  raised  as  far 
as  possible,  and  as  the  carcass  is  lifted,  the  hinder  leg  is 
brought  up  to  hold  what  is  gained  until  the  carcass  is 
clear  of  the  ground  ;  the  hide  is  then  wholly  remoyed, 
the  carcass  washed  and  scraped  from  anything  adhering, 
and  then  divided  down  through  the  backbone,  leaving 
the  sides  hanging.  As  a  matter  of  safety  from  dogs  or 
other  dishonest  animals,  it  is  well  to  have  the  work  done 
in  the  barn,  laying  down  a  quantity  of  straw  to  protect 
the  floor,  if  thought  necessary,  as  the  beef  should  re- 
main at  least  twelve  hours  to  cool  and  set. 


A  FARM  CART. 

While  there  are  different  kinds  of  farm  carts,  we 
have  not  yet  hit  upon  the  cart— ^.  e.,  one  that  meets  with 
general  approbation.  The  writer,  having  much  work 
for  a  cart,  has  designed  one  which  is  intended  to  do  all 
the  work  of  the  farm  more  easily  than  a  wagon  or  any 
other  cart.  For  the  carriage  of  manure,  of  fodder-corn, 
green  clover,  or  other  soiling  fodder,  for  hauling  roots 
and  such  work,  a  cart  is  needed  with  a  low  body,  that 
can  be  turned  around  in  its  own  length  to  back,  or  even 
turn  in  a  manure  cellar  or  on  a  barn  floor.  All  this  can 
be  done  with  this  cart,  and  when  hay,  straw,  or  green 
fodder  is  to  be  loaded,  the  fore  and  hind  racks  may  be 


112  FAEM   COKVEN^IEKCES. 

put  on,  and  greatly  increase  its  capacity.  With  four-inch 
wheels,  this  cart  can  be  drawn,  when  loaded,  over 
plowed  ground  or  muddy  roads,  and  scarcely  sink  below 
the  surface.  Tiie  cart  body  consists  of  a  frame  eight 
feet  long,  three  and  a  half  feet  wide,  and  fourteen  inches 
deep,  thus  holding,  when  heaped,  about  a  cubic  yard 
and  a  half  of  manure,  or  as  near  as  possible  one  ton. 
The  frame  is  made  of  three  by  four  timber  for  the  top, 
and  two  by  three  for  the  bottom,  sides,  and  cross-bars, 
and  is  covered  with  bass-wood  or  willow  boards  on  the 
bottom,  the  front,  and  the  sides  near  the  wheels.  The 
rear  end  is  closed  when  desired  by 
a  sliding  tail-board.  The  axles  are 
fixed  to  the  frame,  as  shown  in 
figure  86,  and  pass  through  the 
middle  side  posts  under  the  upper 
—  slide  bar  and  a  wide  iron  strap, 
ig.     .—AXLE  FAST-  ^j^j^jj^    cmbraccs     the    top    of    the 

ENING.  ^ 

frame,  and  passes  under  the  bot- 
tom, as  shown  in  the  engraving,  being  screwed  by 
bolts  to  the  timbers.  The  wheel  is  the  same  size  as  an 
ordinary  wagon  wheel,  viz.,  four  feet  ;  this  brings  the 
bottom  of  the  cart  body  to  within  one  foot  of  the 
ground,  and  in  loading,  the  lift  is  only  a  little  more 
than  two  feet  from  the  ground.  The  saving  of  labor 
and  the  effect  of  work  are  thus  greatly  increased,  a 
man  being  able  to  load  twice  as  much  with  the  same 
force,  into  a  cart  of  this  kind,  as  into  a  wagon-box 
four  feet  high.  The  rear  end  of  the  cart  may  be 
provided  with  a  roller,  fitted  into  the  rear  posts,  which 
serves  to  ease  the  unloading  of  the  cart  when  it  is  tipped, 
the  rear  end  then  easily  moving  over  the  ground  as  the 
cart  is  drawn  over  the  field  when  unloading  manure. 
But  as  the  cart  body  is  so  low  there  will  rarely  be  any 
need  for  tipping  the  cart.     To  enlarge  its  capacity,  there 


FARM   COKVEKIEiq-CES. 


113 


are  movable  racks  fitted  before  and  behind,  as  shown 
in  figure  87.  The  cost  of  two  of  these  carts  is  not 
more  than  that  of  a  wagon,  and  may  be  less,  if  economy 


Fig.  87.— THE  CAKT  WITH  MOVABLE  RACKS. 

is  exercised  in  making  them.  The  shafts  may  be  bolted 
to  the  sides  and  so  arranged  that  the  cart  can  be  tipped 
over  when  the  load  requires  it. 


BRACES   FOR  A   GATE   POST. 

On  the  side  of  the  post,  and  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  spike  an  inverted  bracket,  made  of  a  two-inch 
plank  of  white  oak,  or  other  hard  wood.     The  bracket 


Fig.  88. — BRACING  A   GATE   POST. 

should  be  not  less  than  six  inches  wide,  and  a  foot  long. 
Th^re  should  be  two  of  these  braces,  one  on  the  gate 


114  FAEM   CO:N^YEi^IEI^CES. 

side  of  the  post  when  the  gate  is  shut,  and  one  on  the 
gate  side  when  open.  Under  the  bracket  place  a  flat 
stone  firmly  settled  in  the  ground,  on  which  the  bottom 
of  the  bracket  is  to  rest ;  a  piece  of  plank,  as  long  as  it 
lasts,  will  do  instead  of  the  stone. 

The  hang  of  the  gate  can  then  be  exactly  adjusted  by 
putting  a  thin  stone  or  piece  of  wood  between  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bracket  and  the  flat  stone  or  plank.  This  is 
a  simple  and  effective  method  of  supporting  a  post, 
where  there  is  no  other  convenient  way  of  bracing,  and 
even  in  almost  all  cases,  it  gives  additional  firmness.  If 
the  lower  end  of  the  post  is  of  good  size,  and  is  well  put 
in,  this  method  of  bracing  will  hold  a  very  heavy  gate. 


WHIPPLE-TREES  FOR  PLOWINO  CORN  SAFELY. 

We  have  found  it  beneficial  to  cultivate  our  corn  crop ' 
until  the  rows  become  impassable 
for  a  horse,  or  until  it  was  four 
feet  or  more  high.  But  to  do  this 
with  the  wide  whipple-tree,  the 
ends  of  which  project  beyond  the 
traces,  and  break  down  the  stalks, 
is  impossible.  It  may,  however,  be 
done  by  using  a  whipple-tree  spe- 
cially provided  for  it.  This  is 
made  as  follows :    a  piece  of  oak 

Fig.  89.-WHIPPLE-TREE.  -1,  •    1  xn 

timber,  two  inches  thick,  three 
wide,  and  twenty  inches  long,  is  rounded  at  the  corners, 
and  deeply  grooved  at  the  ends,  so  that  the  trace-chains 
may  be  entirely  imbedded  in  the  grooves.  A  small  hole 
is  bored  through  each  end,  into  which  a  small  carriage 
bolt  is  inserted,  being  made  to  pass  through  a  link  of  the 
trace-chain,  and  it  is  then  fastened  beneath  with  a  nut. 


FARM   COi^VEKIEKCES.  115 

The  trace-chains  should  be  covered  with  leather  where 
they  will  rub  against  the  corn,  and  a  flap  of  leather 
should  be  left  to  cover  the  front  corners  of  the  whipple- 
tree,  as  shown  in  figure  89.  A  ring  or  an  open  link  is 
fastened  at  the  part  of  the  chain  which  is  attached  to 
the  clevis,  and  one  at  each  end  by  which  it  is  hooked  to 
the  traces.  With  thi§  arrangement  one  may  cultivate 
his  corn  without  injury,  and  the  same  method  may  be 
applied  to  the  whipple-trees,  for  plowing  or  cultivating 
amongst  trees  in  the  orchard  or  garden. 


WHAT  TREES  TO  PLANT  FOR  FUEL  AND  TIMBER. 

The  attention  of  our  people  in  the  older  States  is  being 
very  properly  turned  to  planting  rocky  ridges  and  worn- 
out  pastures  with  forest  trees.  This  work  is  done  by 
those  who  have  no  expectation  of  cutting  the  timber 
themselves,  but  with  a  view  to  improve  their  property 
for  future  sale,  or  for  their  heirs.  These  old  pastures 
now  are  worth  110,  or  less,  per  acre.  Forty  or  fifty 
years  hence,  covered  with  heavy  timber,  they  would  be 
worth  three  hundred  dollars,  or  more,  per  acre.  Two 
elements  may  safely  enter  into  this  calculation  of  the 
profit  of  tree  planting  :  the  steady  growth  of  the  trees, 
and  the  constant  increase  in  the  price  of  fuel  and  tim- 
ber. There  is  great  difference  in  the  price  of  the  varie- 
ties of  wood,  but  still  more  in  the  rapidity  of  their 
growth.  Hickory  grows  more  rapidly  than  white  oak, 
and  io  most  markets  is  worth  a  quarter  more  for  fuel. 
Chestnut  grows  about  three  times  as  fast  as  the  white 
oak,  and  for  many  purposes  makes  quite  as  good  timber. 
It  is  in  great  demand  by  ship-builders,  and  cabinet- 
makers. The  chestnut,  the  tulip  tree,  and  the  hickory 
attain  a  good  size  for  timber  in  twenty  to  twenty-five 


116 


FARM   COKVEKIENCES. 


years,  and  the  spruce  and  pine  need  about  fifty  years. 
The  maples  grow  quite  rapidly,  and  are  highly  prized, 
both  for  fuel  and  for  cabinet  purposes.  On  light  sandy 
land,  the  white  pine  will  grow  rapidly,  and  cannot  fail 
to  be  a  good  investment  for  the  next  generation.  As  a 
rule,  the  more  rapid  growing  trees,  if  the  wood  is  valua- 
ble, will  pay  better  than  the  oaks. 


TO  STEADY  PORTABLE  MILLS. 

Figure  90  shows  a  contrivance  for  steadying  portable 
mills,  which  has  been  used  for  several  years.  It  is  an 
iron  rod  of  suitable  size,  about  a 
foot  long,  fastened  by  iron  brack- 
ets to  the  leg,  or  post  of  the  mill. 
Three  or  four  inches  of  the  rod  is  a 
screw,  and  fits  one  of  the  brackets 
through  which  it  runs,  and  can  be 
turned  up  or  down.  The  lower  end 
of  the  rod  is  pointed,  and  the  upper 
end  squared,  that  it  may  be  turned 
with  a  wrench.  The  rod  is  fastened 
Fig.  90.— LEG  OF  MILL,  fimily  to  thc  side  of  the  post  (one 
on  each  of  the  forward  posts),  and  turned  down  so  that 
the  point  shall  enter  the  floor  sufficiently  to  hold  it 
firmly. 


SPLITTING  EAILS  AND  POSTS. 

Autumn  is  the  best  season  for  cutting  timber,  as 
many  farmers  have  learned  by  experience.  The  season- 
ing process  is  much  more  perfect,  because  there  is  no 
layer  of  growing  sap  wood.  Insects  do  not  work  in 
autumn  cut  timber,  as  in  that  cut  in  the  spring  or  sum- 
mer, and  the  wood  does  not  "powder  post."  It  is  best 
to  split  the  logs  into  rails  or  posts  at  once,  and  not  v/ait 


FARM  CONYEKIEN'CES.  117 

until  the  timber  has  become  seasoned  in  the  log.     The 
logs   will   split   easier,  the   rails  will    season    quicker, 
and  be  more  durable.     The  splitting  of  rails  is  a  work 
thcit   requires  good  judgment,   otherwise  much  timber 
will  be  wasted.     Some  persons  will  make  rails  that  are 
large  at  one  end,  and  gradually  tapering  to  a  sliver  at 
the  other,  and  are  worthless  for  fencing  purposes.     Set 
the  wedge  at  the  top  end  of  the  log,  after  first  ''check- 
ing "  with  the  axe,  by  driving  with  the  beetle,  so  as  to 
divide  the  log  into  two  equal  parts.     Now  drive  in  two 
wedges,  as  shown  in  figure  91,  both  at  the  same  time. 
'Next  use  a  wooden  wedge  or  ''glut,"  either  in  the  end 
of  the  log,  or  on  the  top  a  little  back  from  the  end.   After 
halving  the  log,   quarter  it,   and  then  proceed  on   the 
principle  that  a  rail  should  be  about   three   by  three 
inches.     The  size  of  the  log  will  determine  the  number 
of  rails  to  be  made.     For  example,  in  figure  92,  six  rails 
are  made  by  first  halving  the  quarter,  then  splitting  off 
the  inner  part  half-way  from  the  centre,  and  afterwards 
halving  the  outer   part.     Should   the   logs   be   larger, 
twelve  rails  are  made  from  each  quarter,  as  shown  in 
figure  93,— or  forty-eight  rails  from  the  log.     In  split- 
ting logs  into  posts,  a  broad  and  smooth  side  is  to  be 
sought.     Suppose  we  have  the  same  sized  log  as  the  one 
split    into   forty-eight   rails,    or 
twelve  rails  per  quarter,    figure 
93— the  splitting   would  be,    in 
each   case,   from   the   centre   to 
outside  with  cross  splitting  mid- 
way.   The  number  of  posts  would 
be  determined  by  the  size  of  the 
posts  desired.     If  the  logs  are  of 

"the  size  of  the  quarter,  shown  in 

i.__PosiTioN  or      figure  92,  there  is  no  cross  split- 
WEDGE.  ting,  unless  a  small  piece  for  a 


118  FARM   CO^^VEiTIEK-CES. 

Stake  is  taken  from  the  centre.  When  the  logs  are  only 
large  enough  for  four  posts,  and  a  broad  surface  is  de- 
sired, as  in  bar  posts,  they  may  be  split  by  first  ^'  slab- 
bing," and  afterwards  splitting  through  the  centre  ;  all 
the  split  surfaces  to  be  parallel.     If  still  smaller,  three 


Fig.  92.  Fig. 

posts  can  be  made,  by  splitting  off  two  slabs  on  opposite 
sides,  as  in  the  case  above,  and  not  divide  the  heart,  and 
finally  when  the  log  will  make  only  two,  it  can  be 
halved. 


A  MIXTURE  OF  GRASSES. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  mixed  crops  are  more  pro- 
ductive than  those  sown  singly.  Thus  one  acre  sown  to 
oats  and  barley,  or  oats  and  peas,  will  yield  as  much,  or 
nearly  as  much,  as  two  acres  sown  singly  to  either  crop. 
So  in  grass  lands.  Clover  and  Timothy,  mixed,  will  pro- 
duce nearly  twice  as  much  as  if  the  ground  were  seeded 
to  one  of  these  alone.  It  is  also  a  well-known  fact  that 
our  grass  lands  are  not  so  productive  as  we  could  wish, 
and  the  reason  of  this  may  be,  and  probably  is,  that  we 
have  but  one  or  two  kinds  of  herbage  in  them.  If  we 
examine  an  old,  thick,  luxuriant  sod,  in  a  pasture  or  a 
meadow,  it  will  be  found  to  consist  of  a  variety  of  grasses 
and  other  plants,  each  of  which  seems  to  vie  with  the 
other  in  occupying  the  soil  for  itself.  This  is  the  result 
of  natural  seeding,  and  gives  us  a  lesson  which  we  may 
well  profit  by.  There  is  another  reason  why  grasses 
should  be  mixed ;   this  is  that  the  periods  of  greatest 


FARM   CONVEKIEKCES.  119 

vigor  of  different  varieties  occur  at  different  times.  We 
can  therefore  secure  a  succession  of  herbage  for  a  long 
season  by  sowing  a  variety  of  grass  seeds. 

To  give  examples,  we  might  mention  that  a  mixture 
of  Orchard  Grass,  Eed  Clover,  Timothy,  and  Kentucky 
Blue-Grass  will  produce  a  pasture  which  will  be  in  good 
condition  for  grazing  from  April,  when  the  first  men- 
tioned grass  is  in  fine  condition,  up  to  October,  when 
the  last  is  in  its  most  vigorous  state  ;  the  Clover  and 
Timothy  serving  to  fill  up  the  interval.  With  one  of 
these  alono  there  would  be  but  one  month  of  good  herb- 
age, and  that  coarse,  if  given  the  whole  field  to  itself.  In 
like  manner,  a  quantity  of  Eye  Grass  added  to  a  meadow 
would  help  to  furnish  a  quick  growing  herbage  which 
rapidly  and  constantly  recuperates  after  cutting  or  eat- 
ing down. 

The  fact  is,  that  vre  make  much  less  of  our  advantages 
in  regard  to  our  meadows  and  pastures  than  we  might. 
On  the  average,  seven  acres  of  pasture  are  required  to 
keep  one  cow  through  the  pasturing  season,  when  by  the 
best  management  one  acre,  or  at  the  most  two,  ought  to 
be  sufficient.  This  is  due  in  great  measure  to  the  prev- 
alent fashion  of  seeding  down  with  but  one  variety  of 
grass,  with  clover  added  sometimes,  a  fashion  which, 
hereafter,  experience  teaches  us  should  be  more  honored 
in  the  breach  than  in  the  observance. 


HITCHINa  A  CRIB-BITER. 

Those  persons  who  have  a  horse  that  is  a  crib-biter  and 
windsucker,  and  which  practices  his  vice  when  hitched 
to  a  post  in  the  street,  is  recommended  to  try  a  hitching- 
rod,  such  as  shown  in  figure  94  It  consists  of  a  piece 
of  hickory,  white  oak,  or  tough  ash,  about  twent3^-four 


120  FAKM  coxvekie:n'ces. 

or  thirty  inches  long,  thickest  in  the  middle,  where  it 
may  be  an  inch  in  diameter.  A  fernle  with  a  ring  is  fast- 
ened to  each  end ;  in  one  ring  a  common  snap- 
hook  is  fixed,  and  a  short  leather  strajD  is  passed 
through  the  other,  by  which  the  stick  is  fast- 
ened to  the  post.  The  horse  thus  hitched  can- 
not possibly  reach  the  to])  of  the  post,  to  seize 
it  with  its  teeth.  In  the  stall  such  a  horse 
should  be  hitched  with  two  straps,  one  at  each 
side  of  the  stall,  and  of  such  a  length  that  he 
cannot  reach  either  side  to  take  hold  of  the  rail 
or  partition  of  the  stall.  If  a  swinging  feed-box 
is  used,  the  crib-biter  will  be  forced  to  suspend 
operations,  as  he  cannot  draw  in  the  air  or  ^^suck 
wind,"  unless  he  has  some  projecting  object 
that  he  can  lay  liold  of  with  the  teeth. 


HOW  TO  INCREASE  VEGETABLE   MATTER 
IN  THE  SOIL, 

The  amount  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil 
may  be  increased  by  yarious  methods  ;  one  is 
by  large  applications  of  barn-yard  manure,  say 
fifty  cords  to  the  acre.  But  this  would  be  very 
^^'  '  expensive,  and  is  out  of  the  question  in  com- 
mon farming.  It  may  be  done  by  putting  on  peat  or 
muck,  when  these  are  near  to  the  fields.  But  this 
involves  a  considerable  outlay  for  labor  in  digging 
the  peat,  and  a  still  larger  expense  in  carting  it,  whether 
it  first  pass  through  the  yards  and  stables,  or  be  carted 
to  the  fields  for  composting  or  spreading  upon  the  sur- 
face to  be  plowed  in.  On  some  farms  this  may  be  the 
cheaper  method  of  supplying  vegetable  matter  to  the 
soil.  But  on  others  the  most  economical  method  is  the 
raising  of  clover,  to  be  fed  off  upon  the  land,  or  to  be 


FARM   CONYEKIEi^CES.  121 

turned  in.  If  a  ton  of  clover  may  be  worth  nine  dollars, 
as  a  fertilizer,  the  growing  of  the  plant  is  a  cheap 
method  of  improving  the  land.  Two  tons  for  the  first 
crop  and  a  ton  for  the  second  is  not  an  uncommon  yield 
for  land  in  good  heart.  The  roots  of  clover  also  add 
largely  to  the  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil.  The  first 
crop  may  be  pastured,  waiting  until  the  croj)  is  in  blos- 
som, and  then  turning  in  cattle  enough  to  feed  it  off  in 
three  or  four  weeks.  They  should  be  kept  constantly 
upon  the  field,  that  the  whole  crop  may  be  returned  to 
the  soil.  This  will,  of  course,  help  the  second  crop, 
which  maybe  turned  in  with  the  plow  soon  after  it  is  in 
blossom.  If  the  equivalent  of  three  tons  of  dried  clover 
hay,  and  one  ton  of  roots  have  been  grown  to  the  acre, 
about  thirty-six  dollars'  worth  of  manure  have  been  added 
to  the  soil,  and  it  has  been  distributed  more  evenly  than 
would  have  been  possible  by  any  mechanical  process. 
There  has  been  no  expense  for  carting  and  spreading 
peat,  or  for  composting.  On  the  contrary,  there  has 
been  the  equivalent  of  two  tons  of  clover-hay  consumed 
upon  the  field,  worth,  as  fodder,  twenty-four  dollars. 
This  will  more  than  pay  the  cost  of  seed,  of  plowing 
twice  and  other  labor.  This  is  generally  admitted  to  be 
the  cheapest  m.ethod  of  increasing  the  vegetable  matter 
and  the  fertility  of  soils  in  common  farming.  And  this, 
it  will  be  seen,  requires  some  little  capital. 


OPEN  LINKS. 

An  open  link,  shown  in  figure  95,  is  made  of  three- 
eighth  inch  iron  rod,  and  when  used  to  connect  a  broken 
chain,  is  simply  closed  by  a  blow  from  a  hammer  or  a  stone. 
There  being  no  rivet,  the  link  is  not  weakened  in  any 
way.  Figure  96  shows  another  link,  made  of  malleable 
cast-iron,  in  two  parts,  which  are  fastened  together 
6 


132  FAEM   COXYEIs^IEKCES. 

by  a  rivet  in  the  centre.  A  few  of  these  links  may  be 
carried  in  the  pocket,  and  are  ready  for  instant  use  in 
case  of  an  emergency.      The  last-mentioned  links  are 


Fig.  95.— COMMON  LINK.  Fig.  96. 

kept  for  sale  at  the  hardware  stores  ;  the  first  named  may 
be  made  in  a  short  time  by  a  blacksmith,  or  any  farmer 
who  has  a  workshop  and  a  portable  forge. 


CARE   OF  THE  ROOT   CROPS. 

Sugar  beets  and  mangels,  if  early  sowed,  will  need 
little  care.  They  ought  not  to  stand  too  thick,  how- 
ever, and  it  would  certainly  pay  to  go  through  the  rows, 
thinning  out  all  superfluous  plants,  whether  beets  or 
weeds,  leaving  the  plants  six  to  eight  inches  apart.  If 
the  leaves  are  not  so  large  as  to  forbid  horse-hoeing, 
this  should  be  done  and  the  crop  "laid-by."  No  root 
crop  should  ever  be  left  after  horse-hoeing,  without  a 
man  going  through  it  immediately  after,  to  lift  and 
straighten  up  any  plants  which  may  have  been  trodden 
upon,  covered  with  earth,  or  injured  in  any  way.  Euta- 
bagas,  and  any  turnips  in  drills,  need  the  same  general 
culture.     One  of  the  great  advantages  of  the  introduc- 


FAEM    COJSIVEHIEXCES.  123 

tion  of  roots  into  tlie  rotation  is  that,  when  prop&rly 
treated,  no  weeds  ripen  seeds.  Even  red  sorrel  and 
snapdragon  succumb  to  two  or  three  years'  crop|)ing  with 
mangels  or  Swedes.  This  advantage  is  often  lost  by 
careless  cultivators,  and  nothing  offers  surer  evidence 
of  heedless  farming.  The  crop  itself  may  be  very  fine, 
but  if  kept  clear  of  weeds  it  would  be  enough  better  to 
pay  for  the  trouble,  and  the  weeds  would  then  be  where 
they  will  make  no  more  trouble  forever. 

Turnips  may  be  sown  as  late  as  the  middle  of  August, 
but  the  land  should  be  in  good  heart,  and  good  tilth. 
Swedish  turnips  (rutabagas)  sowed  as  late  as  the  first  of 
August,  will  usually  make  a  crop  delicious  for  the  table, 
and,  though  small,  bring  a  good  price.  Thus  they  are 
often  used  to  follow  early  potatoes  by  market  gardeners, 
though  by  them  usually  regarded  as  a  farm  crop. 


TRAP  FOR  SHEEP-KILLING  DOGS. 

In  many  places  the  losses  by  dogs  are  so  great  as  to 
prevent  the  keeping  of  sheep  altogether  ;  thus  this  profit- 
able and  agreeable  industry  is  made  impracticable  over 
the  greater  portion  of  the  country ;  unless  such  pre- 
cautions are  taken  as  will  add  greatly  to  its  trouble  and 
cost.  With  small  flocks  only,  this  extra  cost  and  trouble 
are  too  onerous,  and  it  is  only  where  sheep  are  kept  in 
large  flocks  that  it  will  pay  to  employ  shepherds  to  con- 
stantly watch  them,  or  take  other  necessary  precautions. 
In  several  of  the  States — West  Virginia  and  Tennessee 
more  particularly — very  stringent  laws  have  recently 
been  enacted  for  the  protection  of  sheep  against  dogs, 
which  will  go  far  to  encourage  the  raising  of  flocks.  In 
other  States,  where  the  influence  of  the  owners  of  dogs  is 
of  more  weight  than  that  of  sheep-owners,  these  latter 


134  FAKM  co:n'"vexiexces. 

are  obliged  to  look  out  for  themselves,  and  protect  their 
sheep  as  thej  may  be  able.  Tor  such  the  contrivance 
here  described  and  illustrated,  may  be  useful.  It  is 
made  as  follows  :  In  the  meadow  or  field,  where  sheep 
are  pastured  during  the  da}',  a  small  pen,  eight  feet 
square,  is  made,  and  fenced  strongly  with  pickets  or 
boards.  This  pen  is  divided  into  two  parts  (.1,  B,  figure 
97)  by  a  cross-fence.     The  pen  is  wholly  covered  over 


Fig.   97.— TRAP  FOR   SHEEP-KILLING  DOGS, 

on  the  top  with  strong  lath.  Two  gates  {a,l),)  are  made 
so  that  they  will  swing  open  of  their  own  accord,  and 
remain  so,  unless  held  closed  or  fastened.  The  gate,  a, 
is  furnished  with  a  latch,  by  which  it  is  fastened  when 
closed.     This  gate  is  intended  to  admit  the  dog  into  the 


FARM   CONVENIEKCES.  125 

part  of  tlie  pen,  A,  when  he  is  attracted  to  it  by  a  sheep 
confined  for  the  purpose  in  the  other  part  of  the  pen  (B). 
In  the  part  of  the- pen.  A,  is  a  heavy  board,  reaching 
across  it.     One  edge  of  this  board  rests  upon  the  ground 
against  two  pegs,  which  keep  it  from  slipping  backwards. 
The  other  edge  is  kept  up  by  means  of  two  shaky  slender 
supports.     A  rope  is  fastened  to  the  upper  edge  of  this 
board,  and  to  the  gates,  so  that  one  half  of  it,  when  the 
board  is  propped  up,  allows  the  gate,  a,  to  swing  open, 
and  the  other  half  holds  the  gate,  b,  shnt,  and  thus  keeps 
the  sheep  confined.     The  trap  is  now  set.    A  dog,  prowl- 
ing in  search  of  mutton,  finds  the  sheep,  and  seeks  an 
entry  into  the  pen.     He  finds  the  open  gate,  and  rushes 
in,  over  the  board  set  upon  its  edge,  and  knocks  this 
down.     This  closes  the  gate,  a,  which  is  at  once  latched 
and  fastened.    The  gate,  d,  is  allowed  to  swing  open,  and 
the  sheep  is  liberated,  and,  of  conrse,  proceeds  home- 
ward without  delay,  while  the  dog  is  imprisoned.     We 
need  not  suggest  any  method  of  dealing  with  the  pris- 
oner, as  there  are  many,  more  or  less  effective,  which 
will  suggest  themselves.     We  think  it  would  be  an  im- 
provement upon  this  plan,  if  the  sheep  be  confined  in 
the  pen,  where  it  can  be  seen  by  the  dogs,  and  an  addi- 
tional apartment,  if  not  more  than  one,  made,  in  which 
other  dogs  could  be  trapped.    Sheep-hunting  dogs  usually 
go  in  couples,  and  if  only  one  dog  were  trapped,  the 
sheep  escaping  from  the  pen  would  be  caught  by  the 
other  before  it  could  reach  home.     With  two  or  three 
traps  all  the  dogs  could  be  caught,  and  in  a  short  time 
the  locality  would  be  rid  of  them,  or,  being  identified, 
their  owners  could  be  made  responsible  for  their  tres- 
passes.    It  would  be  necessary  to  have  the  pen  made 
very  strong,  so  that  the  dogs  should  not  tear  their  way 
out  of  the  trap,  or  into  the  pen  in  which  the  sheep  is 
confined.     Stout  wire-netting  would  make  a  safe  fence. 


126  FARM    COXYENIEXCES. 

So  far  as  regards  what  are  called  dog-laws,  it  wonld  be 
well  if  these  should  provide,  amongst  other  things,  that 
every  dog  must  wear  a  collar,  bearing  its  owner's  name  ; 
that  the  owner  of  any  dog  which  is  caught  in  pursuit  of 
sheep  upon  the  property  of  any  person  other  than  the 
owner  of  the  dog,  should  be  held  liable  for  damages  for 
the  trespass,  and  that  any  dog  caught  trespassing,  and 
being  without  a  collar  bearing  its  owner's  name,  should 
be  destroyed  by  the  person  capturing  it.  As  any  citizen 
has  as  much  right  to  keep  a  dog  as  another  has  to  keep 
a  sheep,  without  being  taxed  for  it,  and  can  only  be  held 
liable  for  what  damage  his  dog  may  do,  it  does  not  seem 
just  that  any  tax  should  be  levied  upon  dogs.  The  only 
just  claim  that  can  be  made  by  a  sheep-owner  is  that  he 
shall  be  protected  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  property,  and 
that  the  person  by  or  through  whom  he  is  injured  should 
recompense  him.  In  the  case  of  irresponsible  owners 
of  dogs,  from  whom  no  recovery  can  be  made,  the  dogs 
should  be  destroyed  by  a  proper  officer.  If  the  right  of 
persons  to  keep  dogs,  when  they  wish  to  do  so,  without 
being  taxed,  is  recognized  in  this  manner,  much  of  the 
opposition  to  the  enactment  of  what  are  called  ^*  dog- 
laws,"  would  be  removed,  and  the  protection  of  sheep 
made  much  less  difficult,  and  productive  of  much  greater 
profit. 


HOW  TO  USE  A  FILE  PROPERLY. 

The  file  is  very 'frequently  used  in  such  an  imperfect 
manner  as  to  greatly  reduce  its  value  as  a  mechanical 
tool.  The  chief  difficulty  in  using  a  file  is  in  keeping 
it  in  a  perfectly  horizontal  position  as  it  is  moved  over 
the  work,  and  in  maintaining  an  equable  pressure  upon 
the  work  meanwhile.  Perhaps  the  most  difficult  work 
in  filina:,  and  that  which  is  most  frequently  ill-done,  is 


FARM   CONVENIEKCES. 


127 


in  sliarpeniBg  saws.  The  bearing  of  the  file  upon  the 
work  is  very  narrow,  and  unable  to  guide  its  direction, 
and  unless  the  file  is  held  very  carefully  the  direction 
varies  continually,  so  that  the  saw  tooth  is  filed  round- 


Fio-. 


-IMPROPER   USE   OP.  THE   FILE. 


ing  instead  of  flat,  or  sloping  instead  of  horizontal,  or  at 
exact  right  angles  with  the  line  of  the  saw,  as  it  should 
be  in  a  mill-saw  or  a  rip-saw.  When  the  file  is  held  as 
shown  in  figure  08  (a  very  common  manner  of  holding 
it),  it  is  alniQst  impossible  to  do  good  work  upon^  a  saw. 
When  the  file  is  pushed  on  to  the  tooth,  the  weight  or 
pressure  of  the  right  hand  is  exerted  upon  the  longer 


Yig,   99,— ANOTHER  WRONG  WAY   OF   FILING. 

portion  of  the  tool,  making  it  act  as  if  it  were  the  longer 
arm  of  a  lever,  and  thus  depresses  that  portion  below  the 
horizontal,  as  at  a.  When  pushed  forward,  the  pressure 
is  then  exerted  upon  the  longer  portion  of  the  file,  which 
is  carried  from  the  horizontal  in  the  contrary  direction. 
The  work  is  thus  made  round.  Or  if  the  pressure  of 
the  left  hand  is  guarded  against,  that  of  the  right  hand 


128 


FAR3I   CO:N'VEiq"IE:N"CES. 


is  seldom  altogether  controlled,  and  the  work  is  left 
sloping,  as  in  figure  99  ;  the  jDosition  at  the  commence- 
ment being  shown  at  a,  and  that  at  the  finish  of  the 
stroke  at  l.  This  is  a  very  common  error  with  sawyers 
in  mills,  as  well  as  with  many  good  carpenters  in  filing 
their  rip-saws. 

To  avoid  either  form  of  this  error,  the  file  should  not 


Fig.    100. — PROPER   METHOD   OF   FILING. 

be  held  with  the  ball  of  the  thumb  pressing  upon  the 
handle  of  the  file,  as  in  figures  98  and  S9  ;  but  the  end 
of  the  file  should  be  taken  lightly  between  the  thumb 
and  fore-finger,  as  in  figure  100.  There  is  no  uneven 
pressure  in  this  case,  and  the  direction  of  the  file  may 
easily  be  kept  perfectly  level.     In  filing  the  base  of  the 


Fig.  101. — FILING    UNDERNEATH. 

tooth,  or  the  under  portion  of  any  work  which  cannot 
be  turned  over,  the  end  of  the  file  should  be  supported 
upon  the  ends  of  the  fingers,  as  in  figure  101,  or  be  held 
by  the  end  of  the  thumb,  in  an  easy  gentle  manner.     If 


FAEM   CONVEi^IEKCES. 


129 


held  lightly,  and  not  grasped  too  firmly,  the  arm  or 
wrist  will  not  be  tired  so  soon  as  when  it  is  held  rigidly; 
and  the  motion  of  the  file  will  be  more  even  and  regular. 
When  the  arm  is  wearied  by  working  in  one  direction, 
it  may  be  rested  by  reversing  the  position  of  the  file, 
taking  the  handle  in  the  left  hand,  grasping  the  end  be- 


Fig.    102.— TO    REST    THE  HAND  IN    FILING. 

tween  the  fingers  and  thumb  of  the  right  hand,  and 
drawing  the  file  towards  the  body,  instead  of  thrusting 
it  away  from  it.  The  file  is  then  held  as  in  figure  102. 
This  is  an  excellent  position  in  which  to  hold  the  file 
when  finishing  off  a  saw  tooth,  or  when  touching  it  up 
at  noon. 


A  MITRE-BOX. 
A  mitre-box  of  an  improved   form  is  shown  in  figure 


Fig.  103.— MITRE-BOX. 

103.     The  greatly  increased  use  of  moulding  in  house 
6* 


130  FARM   COKVEKIEKCES. 

building  renders  a  mitre-box  very  necessary  in  the  work- 
shop. In  the  one  here  described,  a  bevel  of  any  angle 
may  be  cut.  At  the  rear  of  the  box  is  a  slotted  post, 
which  works  in  a  socket,  so  that  it  will  turn  readily  in 
any  direction.  Erom  the  post,  lines  are  laid  out  upon 
the  bottom  at  various  angles.  At  the  termination  of 
eacli  line  is  a  round  hole,  into  which  a  pin  may  be 
fitted.  The  pin  is  used  as  a  guide  for  the  saw  in  cut- 
ting a  mitre-joint,  as  shown  in  the  iUustration. 


THE  MANURE  HARVEST. 

In  the  midst  of  the  harvest  of  grain,  and  grass,  and 
tubers,  we  must  not  forget  the  compost  heap,  in  which 
we  garner  and  store  the  unsowed  crops  of  a  future  season. 
The  saying  that  ^^  anything  that  grows  in  one  summer 
will  rot  before  the  next,"  is  a  safe  guide  in  collecting 
vegetable  matter  for  the  compost  heap.  When  sods, 
muck,  and  weeds  form  a  part  of  the  heap,  it  is  not  alone 
the  material  w^hich  we  are  assiduous  in  collecting,  and 
put  into  the  heap,  that  constitutes  its  whole  value.  The 
fermentation  induced  by  the  dung  and  liquid  manure, 
and  the  action  of  the  lime  or  ashes  added,  work  upon  the 
earth,  adhering  to  the  roots  of  the  weeds,  and  forming 
a  considerable  part  of  both  sods  and  muck,  and  develop 
an  admirable  quality  of  plant  food.  Hence  this  element 
of  the  compost  heap,  which  is  generally  overlooked  as 
possessing  any  special  value,  should  never  be  wanting. 
It  has,  moreover,  its  own  ofiQces  to  perform,  in  pro- 
moting decay,  in  the  formation  of  humus,  and  in  pre- 
serving, locking  up,  and  holding  on  to  valuable  ingre- 
dients of  plant  food. 

The  compost  heap  should  always  be  laid  in  even 
layers,  and  each  layer  should  go  over  the  entire  heap, 


FAEM  conyenie:n"ces.  131 

for  thus  only  can  final  uniformity  be  had.  We  do  not 
mean  special-purpose  composts,  but  those  made  for 
general  farm  crops.  It  would  be  well  if  every  particle 
of  dung,  liquid  manure,  straw,  litter,  leaves,  w.eeds,  etc. , 
could  be  worked  together  into  uniform  fine  compost, 
■and  there  is  really  no  substantial  reason  why  this  should 
not  be  done.  The  gardener  would  plead  for  certain 
special  composts.  It  might,  perhaps,  be  well  to  make  a 
special  hen-manure  compost  for  corn  in  the  hill,  and 
taking  the  general  compost  as  a  basis,  to  make  one  for 
turnips,  by  the  addition  of  a  large  percentage  of  bone- 
dust.  All  this  may  be  done — establish  once  the  rule  to 
compost  everything  of  manurial  value,  and  we  have  in 
prospect  an  abundance  of  farm-made  fertilizers  at  all 
times  and  for  all  crops — victory  over  weeds,  a  good 
place  for  decomposable  trash  of  all  kinds,  a  sacred  burial 
ground  for  all  minor  animals  and  poultry,  whose  pre- 
cincts need  never  be  invaded.  There  will  besides  be  no 
stagnating  pool  in  the  barn-yard,  for  all  liquids  will  go 
to  the  tank,  to  be  pumped  over  the  compost  heaps — no 
nasfc}^,  slumpy  barn-yard,  for  everything  will  be  daily 
gathered  for  the  growing  compost  heap,  and  the  harvest- 
ing of  the  manure  crop,  and  its  increase  day  by  day,  all 
the  year  round,  will  be  a  source  of  constant  pleasure  to 
master  and  men. 


FASTENING  CATTLE  WITH   BOWS. 

Everything  connected  with  this  method  of  fastening 
cattle  in  the  stable,  by  means  of  bows,  is  so  simple  in 
construction,  that  it  is  within  the  reach  of  every  farmer. 
It  requires  no  outlay,  as  each  one  can  make  all  the  parts 
for  himself.  The  bow,  figure  104,  passes  around  the 
animal's  neck  in  the  same  manner  as  an  ox-bow,  and 
is  made  of  a  good  piece  of  hickory,  by  bending  a  strip 


132 


FAEH   CON'YEI^IEI^CES. 


of  the  right  length,  and  three-quarter  inch  in  diameter, 
into  the  bow  form.  After  the  bow-piece.  A,  is  made  of 
the  right  size  and  shape,  with  one  end  left  with  a  knob, 
to  prevent  the  clasp  from  slipping  off,  and  the  other  cut 


AND   CLASP. 


as  shown  in  front  yiew  in  figure  104,  G,  and  side  yiew  at 
F,  to  fit  into  the  slot,  in  the  clasp,  it  is  carefully  bent 
until  its  ends  are  brought  together,  fastened,  and  left  so 
for  a  considerable  time,  when  it  will  take  its  form  and 


AND   ATTACHMENT, 


be  ready  for  use.  The  clasp  is  shown  at  B,  />,  and  con- 
sists of  a  piece  of  hard-wood — hickory  is  best — three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  long  enough  to 
hold  the  top  of  the  bow  well  together.  A  round  hole  is 
bored  in  one  end,  £,  through  which  the  bow  passes  as 
far  as  the  knob,  the  other  end  is  cut  with  a  hole  for  the 


FAEM   COKVEKIEXCES. 


133 


passage  of  the  other  end  of  the  how,  and  a  slot,  C,  into 
which  its  narrow  neck  springs  when  the  how  is  secured 
about  the  creature's  neck.  A  smooth,  stout  hickory 
pole,  two  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  reaching  from 
the  floor  to  the  beam  overhead,  serves  as  a  stanchion  to 
which  to  attach  the  animal,  by  means  of  a  small  bow, 
and  stationary  clasp,  figure  105,  or  an  iron  riug,  A.  If 
a  little  more  room  is  desired  for  young  stock,  a  link  or 
two  of  chain,  B,  can  be  inserted  between  the  bow  and 


Fig.    108.— STABLE   SHOWING  BOW   AND   STAXCUIONS 


stanchion  ring.  In  fastening  the  cattle,  the  bow  is 
raised  when  it  passes  around  the  neck,  and  the  clasp  is 
brought  on,  and  the  end  of  the  bow  is  sprung  in  place. 
When  the  animal  is  to  be  let  loose,  the  end  of  the  bow 
is  j)ressed  in,  the  clasp  slips  off,  the  bow  falls,  and  the 
work  is  done  in  less  time  than  it  takes  to  describe  it,  and 
everything  is  out  of  the  Avay.  Figure  106  shows  a  stable 
arranged  for  this  method  of  fastening ;  aside  from  the 
manger,  there  is  but  the  stanchion  poles,  one  for  each 
animal.     There  is  sufficient  freedom  of  movement  of 


134  FARM   OOKVEKIEKCES. 

the  head,  but  not  an  excess  ;  the  animal  can  stand  or  lie 
down  with  perfect  comfort,  as  the  bow  moves  with  ease 
the  whole  length  of  the  stanchion.  After  a  week's 
practice,  the  animals  will  take  their  place  with  their 
heads  by  the  side  of  the  stanchion,  with  a  precision  that 
is  remarkable.  Having  used  the  method,  here  illus- 
trated, for  several  years,  the  writer  has  found  it  inexpen- 
sive, easy  in  application,  and  safe. 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  WOOD. 

It  is  known  that  the  decay  of  timber  jBrst  begins 
through  the  fermentation  of  sap  within  the  pores,  and 
that  it  is  continued  after  this  by  the  absorption  of 
water.  The  neutralization  of  the  acids  in  the  timber  by 
the  use  of  lime,  has  been  made  use  of  to  preserve  it  from 
decay  with  success;  but  the  most  effective  methods  have 
been  to  saturate  the  pores  with  oils  or  mineral  salts. 
Creosote  and  petroleum  have  been  used  successfully,  but 
few  persons  are  aware  of  the  enormous  absorptive  capa- 
city of  timber  for  these  liquids.  Cypress  wood,  when 
dry,  will  absorb  thirty-nine  pounds,  or  five  gallons  of  oil 
per  cubic  foot,  and  California  redwood  and  pine  ab- 
sorb twice  their  weight  when  perfectly  dry.  But  it  is 
not  necessary  for  perfect  preservation  that  timber  should 
be  fully  saturated.  One  gallon  per  cubic  foot,  for  the 
most  porous  woods,  will  be  fully  effective,  and  a  coating 
of  one  and  three-quarters  of  a  pint  per  square  foot  for 
weather  boards,  or  half  as  much  for  shingles,  will  render 
them  perfectly  water-proof.  In  some  careful  experi- 
ments recently  made,  dry  spruce  absorbed,  during  two 
days'  soaking,  nearly  two  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  water, 
and  but  one-tenth  as  much  when  treated  with  oil ;  dry 
pine  absorbed  sixteen  per  cent,  of  its  weight,  and  oiled 


FAEM   COKVE^'IEl^CES.  135 

pine  absorbed  none  that  could  be  ascertained  by  careful 
weighing.  Pine  has  proved  to  be  the  most  easily  v/ater- 
proofed  of  any  timber.  Those  who  wish  to  preserve 
shingle  roofs^  will  be  able  to  draw  their  own  inferences 
as  to  the  usefnhiess  of  coating  them  with  crude 
petroleum. 


A  NEST   FOR  EGG-EATING  HENS. 

In  the  winter  season  hens  frequently  acquire  the  habit 
of  eating  eggs.  Sometimes  this  vice  becomes  so  con- 
firmed that  several  hens  may  be  seen  waiting  for 
another  one  to  leave  her  nest,  or  to  even  drive  her  off, 
so  that  they  may  pounce  uj^on  the  egg,  the  one  that 
drops  it  being  among  the  first  to  break  it.  In  this  state 
of  affairs  there  is  no  remedy,  except  to  find  some  method 
of  protecting  the  egg  from  the  depredators.  The  easiest 
way  of  doing  this  is  to  contrive  a  nest  in  which  the  egg 
will  drop  out  of  reach.  Such  a  nest  is  shown  in  figure 
107.  It  consists  of  a  box  with  two  sloping  false  half- 
floors  ;  one  of  these  being  depressed  below  the  other 
sufficiently  to  make  a  space 
through  which  the  egg  can  roll 
down  to  the  bottom  floor.  A 
door  is  seen  in  the  side  of  the 
nest,  through  which  the  eggs 
can  be  removed.  The  sloping 
half-floors  are  shown  by  dotted 
lines.     Upon  the  back  one,  close  ^ 

to  the  back  of  the  nest,  a  glass =-_^-. — ^^ 

or  other  nest-egg  is  fastened  by     ^'^  107.-safety-nest. 
a  screw  or  by  cement.     The  false  floors  may  be  covered 
with  some  coarse  carpet  or  cloth,  and  the  bottom  floor 
with  some  chaff  or  moss,  upon  which  the  eggs  may  roll 
without  danger  of  breaking.     If  the  eggs  do  not  roll 


136  FAEM   COKVENIEKCES. 

down  at  once,   they  will  be  pushed  down  by  the  first 
attempt  of  a  hen  to  attack  them. 


PLOWING  GEAR  FOR  A  KICKING  MULE. 

Below  is  presented  a  plan  for  hitching  a  mule  which 
has  a  habit  of  kicking  when  harnessed  to  a  plow,  but 
which  goes  very  well  in  shafts.  Kicking  is  a  yice 
which  sometimes  belongs  to  horses  as  well  as  mules,  and 
the   following   expedient   has  been   found   effective    in 


Fig.  108.— PLOWING  GEAR  FOR  KICKING  ANIMALS. 

curing  it.  Take  a  pair  of  light  shafts  from  a  wagon, 
or  make  a  pair,  and  fit  to  the  end  of  it  a  bent  strap  of 
iron,  as  shown  in  figure  108.  When  the  mule  or  horse 
is  hitched  into  the  shafts  the  end  may  trail  on  the 
ground,  and  the  beast  may  be  exercised  with  the  shafts 
alone.  When  used  to  these,  the  bent  bar  is  fastened  to  a 
plow  by  means  of  a  clevis,  and  any  difficulty  there  will 
soon  be  overcome.  This  device  has  been  used,  not  only 
for  plowing,  but  for  drawing  a  stone  boat,  railroad  cars, 
and  other  similar  vehicles. 


A   LEAP   FORK. 

A  useful  plan  for  making  a  fork  to  gather  leaves  is 
shown  in  figure  109.  The  fork  is  made  of  tough  ash, 
with  ten  teeth,  similar  to  the  fingers  of  a  cradle,  three 
feet  long,  and  slightly  turned  up.     The  head  into  which 


FARM    COHVENIEKCES.  137 

the  butts  of  the  teeth  are  inserted,  is  thirty  inches  long. 
A  light  cross-bar  of  tough  wood  is  fastened  to  the  teeth, 
about  eight  inches  from  the  head,  by  means  of  copper 


Fig.  109.— FORK  FOR  GATHERING  LEAVES. 

wire  and  a  light  screw  to  each  finger.  A  handle  is  pro- 
vided and  fixed  in  its  proper  place,  being  flattened  some- 
what to  keep  it  from  turning  in  the  hand.  The  handle 
should  be  braced  by  two  strong  wires.  With  such  a 
fork  leaves  may  be  loaded  very  easily  and  rapidly. 


PREPARATION  OF   THE   WHEAT   GROUND. 

Wheat  demands  for  its  perfect  development,  among 
other  favorable  conditions,  besides  showers  and  sunshine, 
depth  and  richness  of  soil,  thorough  tilth,  and  freedom 
from  excess  of  moisture.  Soil  that  will  yield  good  clo- 
ver will  bear  good  wheat.  Wheat  follows  corn  very  w^ell, 
but  this  involves  rather  late  sowing.  Where  there  is  a 
market  for  new  potatoes,  which,  as  they  are  intended  for 
immediate  use,  may  be  freely  manured,  the  potato  ground 
—well  plowed  and  harrowed  with  a  dressing  of  bone- 
dust,  superphosphate,  or,  if  there  is  m.uch  organic  mat- 
ter in  the  soil,  with  a  dressing  of  lime — forms  an  admi- 
rable seed-bed  for  wheat.  One  of  the  best  rotations, 
including  winter  wheat,  is  corn  on  sod,  early  potatoes, 
wheat,  clover  and  timothy,  the  grass  to  be  mowed  as 
long  as  it  is  profitable — the  manure  being  applied  in  the 


138  FARM   COKVEKIENCES. 

hill  for  corn,  and  put  on  broadcast  yery  liberally  for  the 
potatoes.  Winter  wheat  follows  none  of  the  usual  root 
crops  well,  for  it  ought  to  be  sowed  and  up  before  the 
middle  of  September,  although  it  often  does  well  sowed 
nearly  a  month  later. 

When  wheat  follows  clover,  a  crop  of  clover-hay  is 
often  taken  off  early,  and  a  second  crop  allowed  to  grow, 
which  is  turned  under  about  the  first  of  August  for 
wheat.  In  case  we  have  very  dry  weather  in  July,  the 
growth  of  clover  will  be  meagre.  If,  however,  the  clover 
stubble  be  top-dressed  at  once,  as  soon  as  the  early  crop 
is  cut,  with  a  muck  and  manure  compost,  or  any  fine 
compost,  *^ dragged  in"' with  a  smoothing  harrow,  the 
second  crop  will  be  sure  to  start  well,  while  none  of  the 
manure  will  be  lost.  Lime,  or  ashes,  if  they  can  be  ob- 
tained, are  to  be  spread  after  plowing  under  the  clover 
and  manure,  and  thoroughly  harrowed  in.  Forty  bush- 
els of  ashes  to  the  acre  is  about  right,  and  where  hearths 
of  old  charcoal  pits  are  accessible — ashes,  charcoal-dust, 
and  baked  earth,  are  all  excellent— they  form  a  good  sub- 
stitute for  ashes  and  for  lime.  Sixty  to  one  hundred 
bushels  of  evenly  dry-slaked  lime  is  a  usual  application, 
which,  if  it  could  have  been  mixed  with  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  soil  or  sods  during  the  slaking,  would  be  all  the 
better. 

The  soil,  and  particularly  wheat  ground,  is  not  well 
enough  tilled  in  this  country.  We  plow  fourteen  to  six- 
teen-inch  furrows,  and  use  a  skim-plow ;  this  leaves  the 
surface  so  mellow,  and  covers  the  sod  so  perfectly,  that 
we  think  it  hardly  needs  harrowing  at  all,  and  only 
smooth  it  over  with  a  harrow,  and  let  it  go.  The  skim 
plow  is  a  great  advantage,  but  we  should  take  narrow 
furrows. 

The  following  practice,  on  heavy  land  especially,  is 
excellent :   Turn  under  the  first  crop  of  clover  as  deep 


FARM   CONVEi^IENCES.  139 

as  possible,  just  before  it  is  in  full  blossom  ;  cross-plow 
the  first  or  second  week  in  August ;  then  put  on  seventy- 
five  bushels  of  lime,  or  more,  and  harrow  it  in  lightly. 
Sow  early  after  a  soaking  rain,  and  apply  at  the  time  of 
sowing  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  or  more  of  super- 
phosphate to  the  acre. 


HOW  TO  DRIVE  A  HORSE-SHOE  NAIL. 

Most  farmers  hesitate  to  attempt  to  fasten  on  a  loose 
shoe  for  fear  of  injuring  the  foot  by  driving  the  nail  in 
a  wrong  direction.  It  is  such  a  saving  of  time  and 
money  to  be  able  to  put  a  shoe  upon  a  horse  in  a  hur- 
ried busy  time,  that  every  farmer  ought  to  learn  how  to 
do  it.  He  may  practice  upon  a  piece  of  soft  pine  wood 
in  a  rough  way,  when  he  will  find  how  easy  it  is,  by 
properly  preparing  the  nails,  to  make  the  point  come 
out  in  exactly  the  proper  place.  To  prepare  the  nail  it 
should  be  laid  upon  the  anvil  (which  every  workshop 
should  have  for  such  work  as  this),  or  a  smooth  iron 
block,  and  beaten  out  straight.  The  point  should 
then  be  bevelled,  slightly  ujDon  one  of  the  fiat 
sides,  and  the  point  also  bent  a  very  little  from 
the  side  which  is  bevelled.  It  will  then  be  of  the 
shape  shown  in  figure  110.  In  driving  such  a 
nail  into  a  piece  of  soft  wood,  or  a  horse's  hoof 
which  is  penetrated  easily  in  any  direction,  if 
the  bevelled  side  is  placed  towards  the  centre  of 
the  hoof  and  away  from  the  crust,  the  point  will 
be  bent  outwards,  and  will  come  out  lower  or 
higher  on  the  crust  as  the  bevel  and  curve  is 
much  or  little.  A  little  practice  will  enable  one  Fig;,  no. 
to  cause  the  point  to  protrude  precisely  at  the  ""^^^^• 
right  place.  By  turning  the  bevel  outwards,  in  driving 
the  nail,  the  course  will  be  towards  the  centre  of  the 


140  FARM   CO:^VEKIEI^CES. 

foot  as  shown  by  the  line  I,  in  figure  111.  The  nail 
is  sometimes  started  in  the  wrong  direction  by  careless 
blacksmiths,  and  the  horse  is  lamed  in  consequence.  If 
the  mistake  is  discovered,  and  an  attempt  made  to  draw 
out  the  nail,  a  piece  of  it  may  be  broken  off,  and  at 
eyery  concussion  of  the  foot  the  fragment  will  penetrate 
further,  until  it  reaches  the  sensitive  parts,  and  great 
suffering  will  follow.  Many  a  horse 
is  supposed  to  have  navicular  dis- 
ease (because  that  happens  to  be 
one  of  those  obscure  affections  of 
the  foot  which  has  no  outward 
sign),  when  the  trouble  is  a  frag- 
ment of  nail  broken  off  by  a  bung- 
ling shoer.  We  have  examined  the 
foot  of  a  horse  which  was  killed  be- 
cause of  an  incurable  lameness,  and 

Fig.lll.— DRIVING  NAILS.   „  .  .       ^^      _. 

found  a  piece  of  nail  thus  bedded  in 
the  centre  of  the  foot,  surrounded  with  an  abscess  which 
had  eaten  into  the  bone.  The  torture  suffered  by  this 
horse  must  have  been  intense,  and  it  was  supposed  to  be 
a  case  of  navicular  disease,  while  the  real  cause  was  un- 
suspected. In  driving  nails  into  the  hoof,  great  caution 
should  be  exercised.  The  hand,  or  the  thumb,  should 
be  held  over  the  spot  wdiere  the  point  of  the  nail  is  ex- 
pected to  come  out,  and  if  it  does  not  appear  when  it 
should  do  so,  the  nail  must  be  withdrawn.  Use  no 
split  or  imperfect  nail,  and  have  the  point  very  carefully 
prepared.  The  course  taken  by  a  nail  properly  pointed 
and  driven  is  shown  by  the  lines  curved  outwards  at  a, 
a,  in  figure  111. 


SCREW-DRIVERS. 

To  drive  a  screw  with  a  screw-driver,  as  it  is  usually 
pointed  and  handled,  is  a  disagreeable   task.     If  the 


FARM   CONVENIENCES, 


141 


screw  goes  in  with  difficulty,  the  driver  slips  out 
of  the  groove,  or  it  cuts  the  edges  of 
the  groove  so  that  the  screw  is  use- 
less. This  is  because  the  point  of  the 
tool  is  not  ground  properly.  It  should  be 
ground  with  an  even  and  long  bevel,  at  least 
an  inch  long  in  small  tools,  and  two  inches 
in  lar£:e  ones.  The  sides  of  the  bit  should 
be  kept  straight,  and  not  tapered  oft'  nor  the 
corners  ground  off  or  rounded.  There 
should  be  no  sharp  edge  ground  upon  the 
end  of  the  tool,  and  the  grinding  should  be 
lengthwise,  or  from  handle  to  point,  and  not 
crosswise.  The  edge  should  be  slightly 
rounded.  The  degree  of  roundness  given 
may  be  such  as  would  make  it  equal  to  an 
arc  of  a  circle  ten  to  twelve  inches  in  diam- 
eter ;  for  small  tools  this  may  be  lessened 
considerably.  The  shape  of  a  well-pointed 
screw-driver  is  shown  in  figure  112.  Flat 
handles  should  be  abolished  as  a  nuisance  ; 
after  an  hour's  use  of  a  driver  wdth  such  a 
handle,  the  hand  will  be  stiff  and  sore.  The 
handle  should  be  round.  Screw-drivers  are 
used  more  frequently  than  necessary.  We 
have  driven  hundreds  of  screws  in  all  sorts  screw-drivek 
of  timber,  hard  white  oak  even,  with  the  hammer,  just 
as  nails  are  driven,  without  the  use  of  a  screw-driver, 
and  found  them  to  hold  perfectly  well.  This,  of  course, 
can  be  done  only  with  the  sharp  taper-pointed  screws, 
and  if  any  one  uses  the  old  blunt-pointed  kind,  he  is  too 
far  behind  the  times  to  be  much  of  a  mechanic  or 
farmer  either. 


Fig.  112.— 


142  FARM   COJS^VEKIEXCES. 

TO  PREVENT  COWS  SUCKING  THEMSELVES. 
There  are  many  devices  to  prevent  cows  from  suck- 
ing themselves.     A  spiked  halter  is  shown  in  figure 
113.     A  buckle   at   the   upper   part,  behind   the  ears, 
makes  it  quite  easy  to  detach  it.      Figure   114  shows 


Fig.    113. — SPIKED   IIALTEK.         Fig,  114.— MAKING   THE  H.ALTER. 

how  the  spikes  are  secured.  The  spikes  should  not  be 
over  two  inches  in  length.  They  are  best  made  of 
wrought  nails,  which  are  sold  at  the  hardware  stores. 
They  are  placed  in  an  iron  vise  and  tlie  heads  flattened 
as  much  as  possible  by  pounding  with  a  hammer  ;  they 
are  then  driven  into  a  piece  of  thick  leather,  and  secured 
by  sewing  or  riveting  it  upon  another  piece  of  leather, 
as  shown  at  B  in  figure  114. 


ABTJSE  OF  BARN  CELLARS. 
A  great  change  has  come  over  the  farm  during  the  last 
thirty  years,  in  all  our  thrifty  farming  districts,  in  the 
general  use  of  barn  cellars.  Formerly  such  an  arrange- 
ment of  the  barn  was  a  novelty,  and  farmers  have 
slowly  learned  its  great  advantages — the  greater  com- 
fort of  cattle,  the  cheaper  cleaning  of  stables,  the  more 
convenient  watering  of  stock,  the  larger  use  of  peat, 
muck,  and  headlands  in  the  compost  heap,  and  the 
greater  value  of  the  manure  made  under  cover.  Now 
the  cry  is  raised  of  damage  to  fodder  and  stock  from  the 
barn  cellar.     Almost  any  good  thing  can  be  perverted 


FARM   CONVENIENCES.  143 

and  become  a  nuisance^  and  it  were  strange  if  men  who 
do  not  read  much,  and  think  less,  could  not  abuse  the 
barn  cellar,  which  is  the  stomach  of  the  farm.  The 
same  kind  of  men  not  infrequently  abuse  their  own 
stomachs,  and  suffer  grievousl}^  in  consequence.  ^^If 
you  make  your  barn  cellar  tight,  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
ammonia  are  thrown  oif  and  injure  the  quality  of  hay 
stored  in  the  rooms  above,  and  the  health  of  the  cattle 
in  the  stables.  If  you  turn  your  pigs  into  the  cellar  to 
make  compost,  and  keep  them  from  the  air  and  the  light, 
they  become  diseased,  and  you  put  bad  meat  into  your 
barrel  to  breed  disease  in  your  family."  These  are  not 
uncommon  complaints,  circulating  in  our  agricultural 
journals.  Well,  suppose  we  admit  these  "things  to  be 
true,  what  of  it  ?  Is  there  any  necessity  for  having  a 
barn  cellar  without  ventilation  ?  If  you  leave  one  end 
open  towards  the  south,  you  certainly  have  ventilation 
enough — and  the  gases  that  are  evolved  from  fermenting 
manure  are  not  going  through  two-inch  stable  plank  and 
the  tight  siding  of  the  barn  when  they  have  the  wind  to 
carry  them  off.  If  a  barn  cellar  is  properly  managed, 
and  seasonably  furnished  with  absorbents,  the  ammonia 
will  be  absorbed  as  fast  as  it  is  formed.  There  will  be 
no  odor  of  ammonia  that  the  nostrils  can  detect.  If  the 
pigs  do  not  do  the  mixing  fast  enough,  the  shovel  and 
the  fork,  the  plow  and  the  harrow,  can  be  added.'  The 
making  of  compost  under  the  barn  is  nice  work  for  rainy 
days  in  wdnter,  and  is  more  likely  to  pay  than  any  work 
exposed  to  the  storm.  The  keeping  of  pigs  under  the 
barn  is  a  question  of  two  sides,  and  however  we  may 
decide  it,  barn  cellars  will  stand  upon  their  own  merits. 
Any  farmer  who  makes  a  business  of  raising  pork  for 
the  market  will  find  a  well-appointed  pig-sty>  with  con- 
veniences for  storing  and  cooking  food,  a  paying  invest- 
ment.    If  he  sees  fit  to  utilize  the  labor  of  his  pigs  by 


144 


FARM   COXVENIEJs^CES. 


making  compost  in  a  well-Yentilated  barn  cellar,  their 
health  is  not  likely  to  suffer  from  the  wholesome  exer- 
cise, or  that  of  his  family  from  the  use  of  the  flesh. 
Swine,  furnished  with  a  dry  sleeping-apartment  and 
plenty  of  litter  for  a  bed,  will  keep  comfortably  clean, 
and  not  suffer  from  overwork  in  the  compost  heap.  If 
anything  is  settled  in  the  experience  of  the  last  thirty 
years,  it  is  the  economy  of  the  barn  cellar.  Our  most 
intelligent  farmers,  Avho  can  command  the  capital,  in- 


FiS.  115.— HAY   KACK   AND  MAXGEli. 


vest  in  them.  A  nice  appendage  to  them  is  a  watering 
trough  fed  by  a  spring  or  a  large  cistern  in  the  em- 
bankment, to  catch  all  the  water,  and  bring  it  out  by  a 
faucet  upo]j  the  stable  floor  above.  This  works  admir- 
ably. 


FARM   CONVEKIEHCES.  145 

HAY-RACK  AND  MAKGER. 

A  cheap  and  conA^enient  hay-rack  and  manger  is 
shown  in  figure  115.  The  front  of  the  manger  should 
be  of  oak  or  other  hard  wood  plank,  two  inches  thick, 
and  one  foot  wide,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is  placed 
about  two  and  a  half  feet  from  the  floor ;  the  bottom 
should  be  one  foot  wide.  The  side  of  the  hay-rack 
is  one  foot  wide,  the  front  is  eighteen  inches  wide ; 
the  top  and  bottom  being  of  the  same  Avidth,  so  that 
hay  will  not  lodge.  The  bottom  is  made  from  one  and 
a  half  inch  hard  board,  and  is  placed  one  foot  above  the 
top  of  the  manger.  Two  guards,  one  inch  in  diameter, 
and  one  foot  in  length,  are  placed  in  an  upright  position 
across  the  opening.  At  the  front  of  the  manger  is  a 
swinging  door,  which  is  shown  partly  open.  This  opens 
into  the  feed-passage.  The  manger  may  haye  one  end 
partitioned  for  feeding  grain.  All  corners  should  be 
smoothed  and  rounded  ofP,  and  to  make  it  durable, 
attach  a  thin,  flat  bar  of  iron  to  the  upper  edge  of  the 
manger  by  screws  or  rivets. 


A  BARN  BASKET. 

Pigure  116  shows  a  home-made  basket  or  box  for  use 
in  the  barn  or  in  gathering  crops.  It  is  made  of  two 
pieces  of  light  board,  twelve  inches  square,  for  the  ends, 
fastened  together  by  laths  sixteen,  eighteen,  or  twenty 
inches  long,  for  bottom  and  sides.  These  are  securely 
nailed.  The  handle  consists  of  a  piece  nailed  to  each 
end,  and  connected  by  a  light  bar.  This  box  is  quickly 
made,  and  will  be  found  very  handy  for  gathering  many 
crops  in  the  field,  as  it  may  be  made  to  hold  exactly  one 
bushel,  half  a  bushel,  or  any  other  definite  quantity,  by 
changing  the  size.  To  hold  a  bushel,  which  is  two 
thousand,  one  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  inches,  the  box 
7 


146 


FARM    COisVEN'IEKCES. 


may  be  scant  twenty  inches  long,  twelve  inches  wide, 
and  nine  deep,  or  scant  eighteen  inches  long,  twelve 
inches  wide,  and  eleven  inches  deep.     For  half  a  bushel. 


Fig.  116. — CONVENIENT   BARN   BASKET. 

scant  eighteen  inclies  long,  ten  inches  wide,  and  six 
deep  ;  or  fifteen  inches  long,  nine  inches  wide,  and  eight 
inches  deep.  For  a  peck,  ten  inches  long,  nine  wide, 
and  six  deep  ;  or  eight  inches  square,  and  scant  eight 
and  a  half  inches  deep. 


THE  TREATMENT   OF   KICKING  COWS. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  a  kicking  cow  is  not  naturally 
disposed  to  this  vice,  but  has  been  made  vicious  by  some 
fault  of  her  owner.  There  are  few  men  who  possess  suf- 
ficient patience  and  kindness  to  so  manage  a  cow,  from 
calfhood  until  she  comes  to  the  pail,  that  she  will  be 
kind  and  gentle  under  all  circumstances.  There  are 
nervous,  irritable  cows,  that  are  impatient  of  restraint, 
which  are  easily  and  quickly  spoiled  when  they  fall  into 
the  hands  of  an  owner  of  a  similar  disposition.  One 
who  is  kind  and  patient,  and  w^ho  has  an  affection  for 
his  animals,  is  never  troubled  with  kicking  cows,  unless 


FAEM   CONVENIENCES. 


147 


he  has  purchased  one  already  made  vicious.  Unfortu- 
nately, few  persons  are  gifted  with  these  rare  virtues, 
and,  therefore,  there  are  always  cows  that  have  to  be 
watched  carefully  at  milking  time. 
Cows  sometimes  suffer  from  cracked 
teats,  or  their  udders  may  be  tender 
from  some  concealed  inflammation, 
and  they  are  restless  wdien  milked ; 
so  that,  now  and  then,  in  the  best 
regulated  dairies,  there  will  be  cowd 
that  will  kick.  Many  devices  have 
been  recommended  to  prevent  such 
cows  from  exercising  this  disagree- 
able habit.  Different  methods  of 
securing  the  legs  have  been  tried. 
The  best  plan  that  we  have  heard  of, 
or  have  tried,  is  shown  in  figure  117. 
This  fetter  is  fastened  to  the  cow's 
near  leg,  by  means  of  the  strap  in  the  centre,  the  curyed 
portions  embracing  the  front  of  the  leg  above  and  below 
the  hock.  It  will  be  perceived  that,  while  the  cow  can 
move  her  leg  to  some  extent,  and  is  not  hobbled,  as 
when  the  legs  are  tied  together,  yet  she  cannot  lift  it  to 
kick,  or  to  put  her  foot  in  the  pail.  We  have  seen  this 
^^ fetter"  tried  upon  a  cow  that  had  very  sore  cracked 
teats,  and  that  kicked  furiously  when  milked,  but  with 
the  fetter  she  was  unable  to  kick  or  hinder  milking. 


Fig.  117.— COW-FET- 
TER. 


HOW   TO  BUILD  A  BOAT-HOUSE. 

Any  kind  of  a  house  that  is  large  enough  may  be  used, 
if  provided  with  the  needed  fittings  named  below. 
Where  the  level  of  the  water  is  liable  to  little  change, 
the  house  need  not  be  raised  much  above  the  surface  of 


148 


FARM  COKVEXIEKCES. 


the  water,  but  the  floor  may  be  made  so  low  that  one  can 
easily  step  out  of  the  boat  to  the 
floor.  Of  course  there  should  be  a 
channel  made  in  the  centre  of  the 
house,  deep  enough  to  float  the 
boat  when  loaded.  The  plan  of 
the  floor  is  shown  in  figure  118, 
with  the  boat  in  the  centre.  The 
floor  should  be  protected  by  a 
light  railing  around  it  (see  figure 
119),  to  prevent  accidents  from 
slipping  when  the  floor  is  wet 
Where  the  watei  Jevel  changes,  the  house  should  be 
raised  on  posts,  or  bents,  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  it 


Fio-.  118. — PLAN  OF  HOUSE. 


Fig.  119.— SECTION   OF   BOAT-HOUSE. 


FARM   CONVENIENCES.  149 

above  high  water.      A  hanging   ladder,   that   may  be 
drawn  up,  is  provided  for  nse  at  low  water. 


WASTE  LANDS— MAKE  THEM  USEFUL. 

Waste  land  abounds  everywhere.  It  is  fenced,  and  has 
the  appearance  of  farm-land,  but  the  owner,  if  a  farmer, 
would  be  better  off  without  it  than  he  is  with  it.  No 
one  locality  seems  to  be  better  or  worse  than  another  in 
this  respect,  unless  it  be  that  the  Southern  Btates  have 
the  most  waste  land,  and  the  Eastern  States  come  next 
in  this  respect.  There  are  rocky  fields,  and  fields 
covered  with  loose  stones  ;  swamps  and  wet  ground,  and 
land  covered  with  wretched  brush  and  small  timber,  and 
in  the  South,  especially,  barren  and  gullied  hill-sides. 
It  is  true,  that  to  clear  up  these  lands,  and  make  them 
fruitful,  will  cost  in  labor,  if  the  labor  is  valued  at  the 
current  rates^  more  than  the  land  would  bring  if  offered 
for  sale.  But  this  is  not  the  right  way  to  look  at  this 
matter.  In  reality,  it  w411  cost  nothing  to  clear  these 
lands,  because  their  owners  may  do  it  by  working  when 
they  would  otherwise  be  idle.  The  way  to  do  it  is  to 
set  about  it.  To  clear  an  acre  or  two  at  a  time,  of  those 
fields  that  can  be  cleared ;  and  to  plant  with  timber,  of 
some  valuable  sort,  that  ground  which  is  too  rough  for 
the  plow,  instead  of  permitting  it  to  grow  up  with  use- 
less brush.  In  many  cases,  the  worst  trouble  that 
farmers  suffer  is,  that  they  have  more  land  than  they 
can  care  for,  under  their  present  system  of  management. 
Hundreds  of  farms  are  worked  as  grain  farms,  that  are 
not  well  suited  for  any  other  use  than  dairy  farms,  and 
ground  is  plowed  that  should  be  kept  in  permanent 
grass.  In  some  cases,  the  owners  of  land  have  discovered 
their  proper  vocation,  as  in  the  dairy  district  of  Central 


150  FARM    CONVEJ^-IENCES. 

New  York,  in  the  fruit  and  grain  farms  of  the  western 
part  of  that  State,  in  the  pasture  farms  of  the  blue-grass 
region  of  Kentucky,  and  in  the  corn-growing  and  pork- 
raising  prairies  of  the  West.  If  the  system  of  culture 
in  these  places  were  changed,  the  farmers  would  be  poor 
instead  of  being  rich,  and  one  sees  yery  little  waste  land 
in  these  localities.  There  are  districts  where  the  surface 
is  hilly,  and  not  so  well  suited  for  arable  purposes  as  for 
pasture,  but  where,  instead  of  grass  and  cows,  side-hill 
plows  and  poor  corn  fields,  washed  and  gullied  by  rains, 
are  to  be  seen.  Here  are  waste  lands  in  plenty ;  and 
their  owners  show  every  sign  of  poverty  and  want  of 
thrift.  It  is  not  easy  to  change  these  circumstances 
quickly,  but  it  is  easy  to  begin — just  as  it  is  easier  to 
start  a  stone  rolling  down  a  hill,  than  to  throw  it  down 
bodily ;  and  when  it  is  once  started,  it  goes  slowly  at 
first,  and  may  need  help,  but  it  can  soon  take  care  of 
itself,  and  speedily  reaches  the  bottom.  It  is  just  so 
with  such  improvements  as  are  here  referred  to.  They 
are  necessarily  begun  slowly,  but  when  one  or  two  acres 
of  these  waste  places  are  reclaimed,  the  product  of  these 
adds  to  the  farmer's  resources.  He  is  richer  than  before 
by  the  increased  value  of  these  acres,  and  he  is  better 
able  to  reclaim  more.  When  these  in  their  turn  are 
improved,  the  means  for  further  improvements  are 
greatly  enlarged  ;  the  ambition  of  the  man  to  excel  in 
his  vocation  is  excited,  and  he  speedily  becomes  a 
fieater,  better  farmer,  and  necessarily  his  circumstances 
are  improved.  Thus  the  rough  waste  lands,  which  give 
a  disagreeable  appearance  to  the  landscape,  and  are  a 
stigma  upon  its  character  and  that  of  our  farmers,  in  the 
eyes  of  our  own  citizens  and  of  foreigners,  might  in  a 
short  time  be  improved  and  a  source  of  profit. 


FAKM   CONVEKIENCES.  151 

A  RAT-OUARD. 

To  keep  rats  away  from  anything  that  is  hung  up,  the 
following  simple  method  may  be  used.  Procure  the  bot- 
toms of  some  old  fruit-cans,  by  melting  the  solder  which 


Fig.  120.— GUARD   AGAINST   RATS. 

holds  them  upon  a  hot  stove.  Bore  holes  in  the  centre 
of  these  disks,  and  string  a  few  of  them  upon  the  cord, 
wire,  or  rope  upon  which  the  articles  are  hung.  When 
a  rat  or  mouse  attempts  to  pass  upon  the  rope  by  climb- 
ing over  the  tin  disks,  they  turn  and  throw  the  animal 
upon  the  floor.  This  plan,  shown  in  figure  120,  will  be 
found  very  effective. 


A  CRUPPER-PAD   FOR  HORSES. 

Many  horsemen  desire  a  method  by  which  to  prevent 
a  horse  from  carrying  its  tail  upon  one  side,  and  from 
clasping  the  reins  beneath  the  tail.  We  cannot  advise 
the  operation  of  ^^  nicking,"  which  consists  in  cutting  the 
skin  and  muscles  upon  one  side  of  the  tail,  and  tying 
it  over  to  the  cut  side,  until  the  cuts  heal,  when  the 
skin,  being  drawn  together,  pulls  the  tail  permanently 
over  to  that  side.  A  different  form  of  the  operation 
causes  the  tail  to  be  carried  up  in  a  style  that  is  sup- 
posed to  be  more  graceful,  and  prevents  the  horse  from 


152 


FAK]*!   CONVEJ^IEJ^CES. 


clasping  the  reins  when  driven.  As  a  preventive  of  both 
of  these  habits,  the  pad  shown  in 
figure  121  is  often  used  by  horse- 
men, instead  of  the  crnel  and  un- 
necessary operation  of  "^^ nicking." 
This  ai^pliance  is  made  of  leather, 
is  stuffed  with  hair  or  wool,  and  is 
abont  three  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  thickest  part,  gradually  taper- 
ing toward  each  end,  where  it  is 
fastened  to  the  crupper  straps.  It 
should  be  drawn  nj)  close  to  the 
roots  of  the  tail,  and  by  exerting 
a  pressure  beneath   it,  the  tail  is 

Fis.  121.— CKUPPER-PAD.    carried  in  a  raised  position,  and  is 

not  thrown  over  to  one  side.     If  it  is,  a  few  sharp  tacks 

may  be  driven  into  the  inside  of  the  pad. 


A  DAM  FOR  A  FISH   POND. 

In  making  a  fish  pond,  by  placing  a  dam  across  a 
stream,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  success  de^^ends 
upon  the  proper  construction  of  the  dam,  whether  it  be 


Fig.  1 


STAKES    ANT)    BRUSH. 


large  or  small.  Any  defect  here  will  make  the  whole 
useless.  The  main  point  in  the  construction  of  a  dam 
is,  to  have  a  complete  union  between  the  earth  of  the 
bed  and  that  of  the  dam.      This  cannot  be  done  by 


TAEM   COXVEKIEKCES.  153 

throwing  the  earth  upon  an  old  Gurface.  A  new  surface 
must  be  made,  solid  and  lirm,  to  receive  the  new  earth. 
In  addition,  there  should  be  a  central  core  of  some  strong 
material,  that  will  serve  to  strengthen  and  bind  the  new 
construction.  In  making  a  dam  or  embankment  to  re- 
tain or  exclude  water,  the  beginning  should  be  to  dig  a 
shallow  ditch,  removing  sod  or  uneven  ground,  or  if  the 
earth  is  bare,  to  disturb  it  thoroughly  with  the  pick,  so 
as  to  provide  binding  material  to  unite  wffch  the  bottom 
of  the  dam.  A  line  of  stakes  is  driven  into  the  ground, 
and  filled  with  brush  woven  in,  or  wattled,  as  in  figure 
122.  In  building  the  dam,  all  the  sods  and  vegetable 
matter  should  be  placed  on  the  outside,  where  these  will 
root,  and  bind  the  surface  together  ;  the  rest  of  the  earth 
should  be  well  trodden,  or  rammed  down  firmly,  and  if 
the  soil  is  puddled  by  admixture  of  water  in  the  process 
of  ramming,  the  work  will  be  better  for.  it.  The  water- 
way in  the  stream  should  be  tightly  boarded  or  planked. 
Three  posts  may  be  driven  or  set  on  each  bank  of  the 
stream,  and  boards  nailed,  or  planks  spiked  for  a  larger 
structure,  so  as  to  retain  the  earth  of  the  embankments 
on  each  side,  figure  123.  A  timber  is  fitted  as  a  mud- 
sill, to  the  front  and  rear  posts,  and  one  to  the  central 
posts ;  the  latter  at  such  a  height  as  will  raise  the  water 
to  the  desired  depth.  The  spaces  between  these  timbers 
are  boarded  and  planked,  and  maybe  filled  in  with  earth, 
well  rammed,  and  mixed  with  straw  and  fine  cedar  brush, 
under  the  covering.  If  it  is  desired  to  raise  the  water 
to  a  greater  depth,  loose  flash-boards  may  be  fitted  with 
cleats,  on  the  centre  of  the  waste-way,  or  a  wire-gauze 
fence  may  be  placed  there,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
fish.  If  freshets  are  apt  to  occur,  a  sufficient  number  of 
these  waste-ways  should  be  provided  to  carry  off  the 
surplus  water,  and  prevent  overflowing  and  wasting  of 
the  dam.     The  dam  of  a  fish  pond  should  always  be 


154 


FAEM   COKVEKIENCES. 


made  high  enough  for  safety  against  OTerflow,  and  to 
guard  against  percolation,  and  washing  away  by  under- 
mining, it  should  be  made  three  times  as  wide  as  it  is 
high,  with  slopes  of  one  and  a  half  foot  horizontal  on 


WASTE-GATE   FOK  POND. 


each  side,  to  one  foot  in  perpendicular  height.  If  any 
plants  are  set  upon  a  dam  or  embankment,  they  should 
be  of  a  small,  bushy  growth,  such  as  osier  willow,  elders, 
etc.,  but  nothing  larger,  lest  the  swaying  caused  by  high 
winds  should  loosen  and  destroy  the  bank. 


A  WAGON  JACK. 

In  figures  124  and  125  is  shown  a  most  convenient 
home-made  wagon  jack,  in  constant  use  for  ten  years, 
and  has  proved  most  satisfactory.  The  drawings  were 
made  with  such  care,  the  measurement  being  placed 
upon  them,  that  tlie  engravings  tell  nearly  the  whole 
story.  Figure  124  shows  the  jack  when  in  position  to 
hold  the  axle,  at  a.  When  not  in  use,  the  lever  falls 
down  out  of  the  way,  and  the  affair  can  be  hung  up  in  a 
handy  place.  Figure  125  shows  the  "catch -board,"  and 
the  dimensions  proper  for  a  jack,  for  an  ordinary  wagon, 
buggy,  etc.     It  is  so  shaped  and  fastened  by  a  din  be- 


FAKM   COISTVEHIEKCES. 


155 


tween  the  upright  parts  of  the  jack,  that  it  is  pushed  in 
position,  dy  by  the  foot  at  c,  when  the  axle  is  raised ; 
and  falls  back  of  its  own  accord  when  the  lever  is  raised 
a  trifle  to  let  the  wheel  down.     All  the  parts  are  made 


Fig.    124. — MICHIGAN   WAGON   JACK. 


Fig.  125.— CATCH-BOARD. 


of  inch  stuff,  the  foot  board,  catch,  and  leyer  should  be 
of  hard  wood ;  the  upright  boards  between  which  they 
are  placed  can  be  of  pine  or  other  soft  wood.  Persons 
who  see  this  simple  and  convenient  wagon  jack  fre- 
quently say,  ^^  Why  don't  you  get  it  patented  ?"  but  the 
inventor  thinks  that  such  simple  things,  which  any  one 
can  make,  ought  to  be  contributed  for  the  common  good, 
and  in  the  same  spirit  we  commend  it  to  any  who  may 
be  in  need  of  a  good  wagon  jack. 


WILL  YOU  FEED  HAY  OR   WOOD  ? 

A  great  deal  has  been  said  and  Avritten  about  the 
proper  time  of  cutting  hay.  The  best  time,  all  things 
considered,  is  to  cut  the  grass  just  after  it  has  come  into 


156  FARM   CONVENIEiq^CES. 

full  bloom,  though  many  think  the  preferable  time  is 
just  when  it  is  coming  into  full  blossom.  As  it  is  im- 
possible to  always  mow  every  field  just  at  the  right  mo- 
ment, the  general  safe  rule  is,  we  think,  to  be  all  ready 
to  begin  at  full  bloom,  and  finish  before  it  is  entirely 
past. 

There  is  this  important  fact  to  be  kept  in  mind,  viz., 
that  as  soon  as  grass  of  any  kind  has  attained  its  growth, 
and  is  full  of  juices,  it  begins  to. change  more  and  more 
into  woody  fibre,  and  that  when  fully  ripe  a  large  part 
of  the  stems  or  stalks  differ  very  little  in  composition 
from  dry  wood.  And  every  one  knows  that  dry  wood 
is  neither  easily  digested  nor  nutritious.  It  stands  to 
reason  that  a  stalk  of  grass  cut  when  it  is  full  of  juice 
containing  sugar,  gum,  and  protein  compounds,  and 
cured  thus,  must  be  more  nutritious  than  if  left  standing 
until  a  part  of  these  cotistiiuents  have  changed  into 
woody  fibre.  Feeding  hay  not  cut  until  it  is  thoroughly 
ripe,  is  giviug  the  animals  that  which  is  in  part  only  so 
much  wood.  The  practical  lesson  is,  make  a  good  ready 
Avell  in  advance,  now,  and  have  the  barns,  mows,  stack- 
ing arrangements,  mowers,  scythes,  horse  and  other 
rakes,  forks,  wagon  racks,  in  short,  all  things,  in  perfect 
order — and  the  work  planned,  so  as  not  to  let  any  hay- 
field  get  into  the  fully  ripe  condition.  Head  work  be- 
forehand will  save  hard  v/ork  and  worry,  and  secure 
better  hay. 


A  BRACE  FOR  A  KICKING  HORSE. 

Those  so  unfortunate  as  to  own  a  kicking  horse  know 
something  of  the  patience  that  it  requires  to  get  along 
with  it — and  will  welcome  anjrthing  which  will  prevent 
the  kicking  and  finally  effect  a  cure.  The  writer  knew 
a  horse,  which  was  so  bad  a  kicker  that  after  various 


FARM   CONYENIENCES.  157 

trials,  and  after  passing  through  many  hands,  and  get- 
ting worse  all  the  time,  to  be  perfectly  cured  in  the 
course  of  three  months  by  the  use  of  the  device  here 
giyen.     This  is  a  simple  brace,  which  acts  upon  the  fact 
that  if  the  head  be  kept  up,  the  horse  cannot  kick.     A 
kicking  horse  is  like  a  balance,  when  one  end  goes  up,  the 
other  must  go  down.     The  brace  is  shown  in  figure  126, 
and  consists  of  a  one-half  inch  iron  rod,  which  may  be 
straight,  or,  for  the  looks,  bent  into 
a   graceful  curve.     It  is  forked  at 
both  ends  ;  the  two  divisions  of  the 
upper  end  are  fastened  to  the  two 
rings  of  the  bit,  while  the  lower  ends 
fit  upon  the  lower   portion  of   the 
collar  and  hames.     The  upper  ends 
can  best  be  fastened  to  the  bit  by 
winding  with  wire,  which  should  be 
done  smoothly,   so  as  not  to  wear 
upon  the  mouth.     The  lower  end  is 
secured  by  means  of  a  strap  fastened 
to    the    upper    loop,    and    passing 
around  the  collar  is  buckled  through 
the  hole  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
end  of  the  brace.      The  brace  need 
not  be  taken  from  the  bit  in  unhar-    ^^^'  126.-the  brace. 
nessing.     Any  blacksmith  can  make  such  a  brace,  taking 
care  to  have  it  of  the  proper  length  to  fit  the  particular 
horse.     Keep  its  head   at   about   the   height   as   when 
'^checked  up,"  and  the  horse  will  soon  be  cured. 


HOW  TO   SAVE  LIQUID   MANUHE. 

In  ordinary  farm  practice,  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the 
liquid  manure  of  the  stock  kept  is  lost.  N"o  effort  is 
made  to  save  it.     There  is  no  barn  cellar,  no  gutter  be- 


158  FARM   COXYENIEIS'CES. 

hind  the  stabled  animals,  no  absorbents.  Analysis  shows 
that  the  liquid  manure  is  quite  as  valuable  as  the  solid, 
or  even  more  so.  In  1, 000  pounds  of  fresh  horse  dung 
there  are  4.4  pounds  of  nitrogen,  3.5  of  potash,  and  3.5 
of  phosphoric  acid.  In  horse  urine  there  are  15.5  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  and  15.0  of  potash.  In  1,000  pounds  of  fresh 
cattle  dung  there  are  2.9  pounds  of  nitrogen,  1.0  of  pot- 
ash, 1.7  of  phosphoric  acid.  In  the  urine,  5.8  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  4.9  of  potash.  These  are  the  most  valuable 
constituents  of  manure,  and  no  farmer  can  afford  to 
have  them  so  generally  run  to  waste.  There  is  very  lit- 
tle loss  where  there  is  a  gutter  well  supplied  with  absorb- 
ents, and  a  barn  cellar  well  coated  with  dried  peat,  muck, 
or  headlands,  to  absorb  the  liquids  as  fast  as  they  fall. 
But  barn  cellars  are  still  in  the  minority.  Mr.  Mechi 
had  a  very  expensive  apparatus  for  distributing  the  liquid 
manure  over  his  farm,  by  means  of  tanks  and  pipes,  and 
thought  it  paid,  but  failed  to  convince  his  contemporaries 
of  the  fact.  However  that  may  be,  it  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion to  apply  liquid  manure  in  this  manner,  economic- 
ally, upon  the  average  farm.  It  takes  too  much  capital, 
and  requires  too  much  labor.  By  the  use  of  absorbents, 
it  can  be  done  economically,  on  a  small  or  large  scale, 
with  very  little  waste.  Some  use  a  water-tight  box, 
made  of  thick  plank,  covering  the  floor  of  the  stall. 
This  is  a  very  sure  way  to  save  everything,  and  the  only 
objection  to  it  is  the  expense  of  the  box,  and  the  in- 
creased labor  of  keeping  the  stalls  clean.  We  used  for 
several  years  dried  salt-marsh  sod,  cut  in  blocks  eight  or 
ten  inches  square,  taken  from  the  surface  of  the  marsh 
in  ditching.  This  had  an  enormous  capacity  for  absorb- 
ing liquids,  and  a  layer  of  these  sods  would  keep  a  horse 
or  cow  comfortabl}^  dry  for  a  fortnight.  Refuse  hay  or 
straw  was  used  on  top  for  purposes  of  cleanliness.  The 
saturated  sod  was  thrown  into  the  compost  heap  with 


FARM   COKVENIENCES.  159 

other  manure,  where  it  made  an  excellent  fertilizer. 
Later  we  used  sawdust,  purchased  for  the  purpose  at 
two  cents  a  bushel,  as  bedding  for  a  cow  kept  upon  a 
cemented  floor.  A  bed  a  foot  thick  would  last  nearly  a 
month,  when  it  was  thrown  out  into  the  compost  heap. 
The  sawdust  requires  a  longer  time  for  decomposition, 
but  saves  the  liquid  manure.  Our  present  experiment, 
covering  several  months,  is  with  forest  leaves,  principally 
hickory,  maple,  white  ash,  and  elm.  A  bushel  of  dried 
leaves,  kept  under  a  shed  for  the  purpose,  is  added  to 
the  bedding  of  each  animal,  and  the  saturated  leaves 
are  removed  with  the  solid  manure  as  fast  as  they  accu- 
mulate. The  leaves  become  very  fine  by  the  coEstant 
treading  of  the  animals,  and  by  the  heat  of  their  bodies, 
and  the  manure  pile  grows  rapidly.  It  is  but  a  little 
additional  labor  to  the  ordinary  task  of  keeping  animals 
clean  in  their  stalls,  to  use  some  good  absorbent,  and 
enough  of  it,  to  save  all  the  liquid  manure.  What  the 
absorbent  shall  be  is  a  question  of  minor  imxportance. 
Convenience  will  generally  determine  this  matter.  No 
labor  upon  the  farm  pays  better  than  to  save  the  urine 
of  all  farm  stock  by  means  of  absorbents.  These  are  in 
great  variety,  and,  in  some  form,  are  within  the  reach 
of  every  man  that  keeps  cattle  or  runs  a  farm.  Stop  this 
leak,  and  lift  your  mortgage. 


AN  OPEN   SHED   FOE,  FEEDING. 

A  feeding-trough  in  a  yard,  which  can  be  covered  to 
keep  out  snow  or  rain,  is  a  desirable  thing,  and  many 
devices  have  been  contrived  for  the  purpose,  most  of 
which  are  too  costly.  We  give  herewith  a  method  of 
constructing  a  covered  feeding-trough,  which  may  be 
made  very  cheaply  of  the  rough  materials  to  be  had  on 
every  farm.     A  sufficient  number  of  stout  posts  are  set 


160  PAEM  con"ye:n'ie:n^ces. 

firmly  in  the  ground,  extending  about  ten  feet  above  the 
surface.  They  should  be  about  six  feet  apart  and  in  a 
straight  line,  and  a  plate  fastened  to  their  tops.     A  pair 


Fig.  127.— A.X   OPEN   FLEDING-SHED. 

of  rafters  supported  by  braces,  as  shown  in  figure  127, 
is  fitted  to  each  post.  A  light  roof  of  laths  is  laid,  and 
covered  with  bark,  straw,  corn-stalks,  or  coarse  hay. 
Strips  are  fastened  from  one  brace  to  another,  and  laths 
or  split  j3oles  nailed  to  them,  about  six  inches  aj)art,  to 
make  a  feed-rack.  A  feed-trough  for  grain  or  roots  is 
built  upon  each  side.  For  sheep,  the  shed  and  rack  may 
be  made  only  eight  feet  high  at  the  peak,  and  the  eaves 
four  feet  from  the  ground  ;  giving  better  shelter. 


A  SHADE  FOR  HORSES'  EYES. 

The  most  frequent  cause  of  weak  eyes  in  horses  is  a 
badly-arranged  stable.  Foul  gases  irritate  and  inflame 
the  tender  membranes  of  the  eye  and  head,  and  horses 
brought  from  dark  stables  into  bright  sunlight,  or  onto 
glittering  snow,  are  dazzled  and  blinded.  The  existing 
weakness  or  irritation  is  intensified,  and  the  poor  animal 
suffers  unsuspected  torments.  The  remedy  is  to  purify 
the  stable  and  give  it  sufiicient  light,  shaded  by  blinds. 


FAKM   COKVEN'IEKCES. 


161 


from  before  and  behind  the  horse,  or  from  both  sides, 
avoiding  a  light  from  only  the 
front,  rear,  or  one  side  light. 
A  shade  for  weak  or  inflamed  ^1 
eyes  may  be  constructed  by 
fastening  wires  to  the  bridle 
and  covering  it  with  oiled 
cloth  in  the  manner  repre- 
sented in  figure  128.  Thus 
a  soft,  subdued  light  reaches 
the  eyes,  while  the  horse  can 
still  see  the  ground  immedi- 
ately before  him.  It  will  be 
a  timely  job  to  prepare  such  Fig:.i28.— to  protect  the  eyes. 
a  shade  for  use  before  the  snow  of  winter  comes. 


TEST    ALL    SEEDS-IMPORTANT. 

No  one  can,  by  merely  looking  at  them,  positively  tell 
whether  any  particular  lots  of  field,  garden,  or  flower 
seeds  have  or  have  not  sufficient  vitality  of  germ  to  start 
into  vigorous  growth.  Yet  it  is  a  severe  loss,  often  a 
disastrous  one,  to  go  through  with  all  the  labor  and  ex- 
pense of  preparation  and  planting  or  sowing,  and  find 
too  late  that  the  crop  is  lost  because  the  seeds  are  de- 
fective. All  this  risk  can  be  saved  by  a  few  minutes' 
time  all  told,  in  making  a  preliminary  test,  and  it 
should  be  done  before  the  seed  is  wanted,  and  in  time  to 
get  other  seed  if  necessary.  Seeds  may  not  have  ma- 
tured the  germ  ;  it  may  have  been  destroyed  by  heat  or 
moisture ;  minute  insects  may  have,  unobserved,  punc- 
tured or  eaten  out  the  vital  part  of  a  considerable  per- 
centage. 

Select  from  the  whole  mass  of  the  seed,  one  hundred, 
or  fifty,  or  even  ten  seeds,  that  will  be  a  fair  sample  cf 


162  FARM   COKVENIEKCES. 

all.  For  larger  seeds,  as  wheat,  corn,  oats,  peas,  etc., 
take  a  thin,  tough  sod,  and  scatter  the  counted  seeds 
upon  the  earth  side.  Put  upon  the  seeds  another  simi- 
lar sod,  earth  side  down.  Set  this  double  sod  bj  the 
warm  side  of  the  house  or  other  building,  or  of  a  tight 
fence,  moistening  it  occasionally  as  needed.  If  very  cold, 
cover,  or  remove  to  the  kitchen  or  cellar  at  night.  The 
upper  sod  can  be  lifted  for  observation  when  desirable. 
The  swelling  and  starting  of  the  seeds  will  in  a  few  days, 
according  to  the  kind,  tell  what  percentage  of  them  will 
grow — a  box  of  earth  will  answer  instead  of  sods,  both 
for  large  and  small  seeds.     Small  seeds  of  vegetables  or 


Fig.    129.— HOME-MADE    KOLLEK. 

flowers,  and  even  larger  ones,  may  be  put  into  moist  cot- 
ton, to  be  kept  slightly  moist  and  placed  in  the  sun  or 
in  a  light  warm  room.  For  small  quantities  of  valuable 
flower  seeds  and  the  like,  half  a  dozen  will  suffice  for  a 
trial  test.  With  any  seed,  for  field  or  garden,  however 
good,  it  is  always  very  desirable  and  useful  to  know  ex- 
actly how  many  or  few  are  defective,  and  thus  be  able  to 
decide  how  much  seed  to  use  on  an  acre,  or  other  plot. 


FARM    CONVEi^TIENCES. 


163 


A  FIELD   HOLLER. 

A  very  good  field  roller  may  be  easily  made  in 
winter,  when  timber  is  being  cnt.  Use  a  bntt-log  of  an 
oak  tree,  in  the  form  shown  in  figure  129.  The  log 
need  not  be  a  yery  large  one,  because  the  frame,  in  which 
it  is  mounted,  enables  it  to  be  loaded  to  any  reasonable 
extent,  and  the  driver  may  ride  npon  it,  and  thus  add 
to  the  weight.  A  roller  will  be  found  yery  yaluable 
in  the  spring  when  repeated  frosts  haye  raised  the  ground 
and  thrown  out  the  stones. 


A  PORTABLE  SLOP  BARREL. 

A  barrel  mounted  upon  wheels,  as  shown  in  figure 
130,  will  be  found  nsefnl  for  many  purposes  about  the 
farm,  garden,  or  household.  The  barrel  is  supported 
upon  a  pair  of  wheels,  the  axles  of  which  are  fastened  to 


Fig.   130. —PORTABLE  BARREL  FOR   SLOPS. 

a  frame  connected  with  the  barrel  by  means  of  straps 
bolted  to  the  sides.  The  frame  may  be  made  of  iron 
bent  in  the  form  shown  in  figure  131,  or  of  crooked  tim- 
ber haying  a  sufficient  bend  to  permit  the  barrel  to  be 
tipped  for  emptying.  A  pair  of  handles  are  provided,  as 
shown  in  the  engraying.  When  not  in  use,  the  barrel 
rests  upon  the  ground,  and  may  be  raised  by  bearing  down 
upon  the  handles.  The  barrel  may  be  made  to  rest  in 
notched  bearings  upon  the  frame,  so  that  by  raising  the 


164  FARM   CONVENIENCES. 

handles,  the  wheels  may  be  drawn  away  from  the 
barrel,  and  the  latter  left  in  a  convenient  place  until  it 
needs  remoyal.     This  contrivance  will  be  nseful  for  feed- 


¥v^.  131.— PLAN   OF  FRA>IE   OF   BARREL. 

ing  slops  to  pigs,  or  for  removing  the  waste  of  the  honse 
to  the  barn-yard. 

WHERE  AND  HOW  TO   APPLY  FERTILIZERS. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  decide — for  barn-yard  or  stable 
manures,  or  for  any  artificial  fertilizer — whether  to  use 
it  in  the  hill  or  broadcast  it ;  and  whether  to  apply  it  on 
the  surface,  or  bury  it  deeply.  Here  is  a  hint  or  two. 
If  not  strong  enough  to  injure  the  first  tender  roots,  a 
little  manure  near  at  hand  gives  the  plant  a  good  send- 
off,  like  nourishing  food  to  the  young  calf  or  other  ani- 
mal ;  the  after-growth  is  much  better  if  the  young  ani- 
mal or  plant  is  not  dwarfed  by  imperfect  and  insufficient 
diet.  Therefore,  drilling  innocuous  hand  fertilizers  in 
with  the  seed  is  useful,  as  is  putting  some  well-rotted 
manure  or  leached  ashes  into  hills  of  corn,  potatoes,  in- 
deed with  all  planted  seeds.  But  there  arc  good  reasons 
for  distributing  most  of  the  manures  or  fertilizers  all 
through  tlie  soil,  and  as  deeply  as  the  plant  roots  can 
possibly  penetrate.  The  growth  and  vigor  of  all  plants 
or  crops  depend  chiefly  upon  a  good  supply  of  strong 
roots  that  stretch  out  far,  and  thus  gather  food  over  the 
widest  extent  of  soil.     If  a  flourishing  stalk  of  corn, 


FARM   CONVENIENCES.  165 

grain  or  grass,  be  carefully  washed,  so  as  to  leave  all  its 
roots  or  rootlets  attached,  there  will  be  found  a  wonder- 
ful mass  of  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  roots  to  any 
plant,  and  they  extend  oft  a  long  distance,  frequently 
several  feet— the  farther  the  better,  to  collect  more  food 
and  moisture.  Put  some  manure  or  fertilizer  in  place 
two  feet  away  from  a  corn  or  potato  hill,  or  from  almost 
any  plant,  and  a  large  mass  of  roots  will  go  out  in  that 
direction.  So,  if  we  mix  manures  or  fertilizers  well 
through  the  whole  soil,  they  attract  these  food-seeking 
roots  to  a  greater  distance  ;  and  they  thus  come  in  con- 
tact with  more  of  the  food  already  in  the  soil,  and  find 
more  moisture  in  dry  weather.  A  deeply-stirred  soil, 
with  manure  at  the  bottom,  develops  water-pumping 
roots  below  the  reach  of  any  ordinary  drouth,  and  the 
crops  keep  right  on  growing— all  the  more  rapidly  on 
account  of  the  helpful  sun's  rays  that  would  scorch  a 
plant  not  reaching  a  deep  reservoir  of  moisture. 


A  MILL  FOR  CRUSHING  BONES. 
To  save  the  expense  of  a  purchased  bone-mill,  one  may 
be  made  as  described  below,  which  will  crush  them  into 
a  condition  much  more  valuable  for  manure  than  the 
whole  bones,  if  not  quite  as  good  as  if  finely  ground. 
Make  a  circular  mould  of  boards,  six  feet  wide  and  two 
feet  deep.  Hoops  of  broad  band-iron  are  fitted  to  the 
inside  of  the  mould,  and  secured  to  it  about  one  inch 
apart.  The  mould  is  then  filled  with  a  concrete  of  Port- 
land cement,  sand,  and  broken  stone.  Place  in  the  con- 
crete when  filling  binding  pieces  of  flat  bar-iron,  to  pre- 
vent the  mass  from  cracking  when  in  use.  In  the  cen- 
tre place  squares  of  band-iron,  as  a  lining  for  a  shaft  by 
which  the  crusher  is  turned.  When  the  concrete  is  set 
and  hardened,  the  frame  may  be  taken  apart ;  and,  as  in 


166 


FAKM    COXYEXIEKCES. 


setting  the  concrete  will  expand  somewhat,  the  iron 
bands  around  the  mass  will  be  found  to  have  become  a 
tight  solid  facing  to  the  wheel.  The  wheel  is  then  set 
up  on  edge,  and  a  square  shaft  of  yellow  pine,  six  inches 
thick,  is  wedged  into  the  central  space.  This  shaft  is 
fitted  to  an  upright  post  by  a  loose  band  of  iron  and  a 
swivel  joint,  so  that  the  wheel  may  be  made  to  revolvo 
around  it.  Any  other  suitable  connection  may  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  A  hollow  trough  of  broken  stone  and 
well  rammed  concrete  is  then  laid  in  the  track  of  the 


Fig.   132.— HOME-MADE   BOXE-MILL. 

wheel  as  it  revolves,  and  the  crusher  is  complete  and 
ready  for  a  pair  of  horses  to  be  attached  to  it,  figure  132. 
A  crusher  of  this  kind  may  be  put  up  at  a  country  mill, 
or  as  a  joint  affair  by  a  few  farmers  uniting  their  efforts, 
and  thus  utilizing  a  valuable  fertilizing  material,  which 
is  now  wasted  for  want  of  means  to  render  it  available. 


LIME  a:n^d  limestone. 

In  the  first  place,  limestone,  marble,  calc-spar,  chalk 
(of  rare  occurrence  in  this  country),  marl,  and  oyster,  and 


FARM   COKVEKIEKCES.  167 

other  shells,  are  all  essentially  the  same  in  composition, 
however  they  may  diUer  in  texture,  form,  and  other  par- 
ticulars. They  are  all  different  forms  of  the  carbonate 
of  lime ;  that  is,  they  consist  of  the  alkaline  earth,  lime, 
in  combination  with  carbonic  acid,  and  in  the  case  of 
shells,  with  animal  matter.  As  a  general  thing,  we  only 
know  carbonic  acid  as  a  gas.  It  has  a  very  weak  hold 
of  the  lime,  for  if  we  drop  a  fragment  of  limestone  into 
strong  vinegar,  the  acetic  acid  of  the  vinegar  will  unite 
with  the  lime  (forming  acetate  of  lime),  while  the  car- 
bonic acid,  being  set  free,  will  be  seen  to  pass  off  in  small 
bubbles.  In  this  case  we  free  the  lime  from  its  carbonic 
acid,  by  presenting  to  it  a  stronger  acid,  that  of  vinegar. 
But  if  instead  of  using  another  acid  to  displace  the  car- 
bonic acid,  we  place  limestone  in  any  of  its  forms,  in  a 
strong  fire,  the  carbonic  acid  will  be  driven  off  by  the 
heat,  and  there  will  be  left,  simply  lime.  This  is  called 
quick  lime,  or  caustic  lime,  and  by  chemists  oxide  of 
the  metal  calcium,  or  calcium  oxide.  Lim.e,  then,  is 
limestone  without  its  carbonic  acid.  All  the  forms  of 
limestone  are  very  little  soluble  in  water;  lime  itself  is 
more  soluble,  though  but  slightly  so,  requiring  at  ordi- 
nary temi^eratures  about  seven  hundred  times  its  own 
weight  of  water,  yet  it  gives  a  marked  alkaline  taste  to 
water  in  which  it  is  dissolved.  Lime  in  this  condition, 
as  quick  lime,  or  when  combined  with  water,  '*^  slaked" 
as  it  is  called,  is  much  emjDloyed  in  agriculture.  A 
small  portion  of  lime  is  required  by  plants,  but  the 
chief  use  of  lime,  when  applied  to  the  soil,  is  to  bring 
the  vegetable  matters  contained  in  the  soil  into  a  condi- 
tion in  which  they  can  be  used  as  plant  food.  This  ap- 
plication of  lime  as  a  fertilizer  has  long  been  followed  by 
farmers,  and  in  many  cases  with  the  most  beneficial  re- 
sults. Within  a  year  or  so  great  claims  have  been  made 
for  ground  limestone,  especially  by  the  makers  of  mills 


168  FARM  co:n"vexiences. 

for  grinding  it ;  some  of  these  have  asserted  that  it  was 
superior  to  burned  lime,  and  superior  to  nearly  all  other 
fertilizers.  The  question  which  most  interests  farmers 
is,  has  limestone,  however  fine  it  may  be,  any  value  as  a 
fertilizer  ?  To  this  the  answer  would  be  both  *^yes  "  and 
"no."  Upon  a  heavy  clay  soil  the  carbonate  of  lime,  or 
limestone  in  any  form,  appears  to  have  a  beneficial  ef- 
fect ;  it  makes  such  soils  friable  and  open,  so  that  water 
and  air  may  penetrate  them.  While  its  action  upon  the 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  is  far  less  prompt  and  ener- 
getic than  that  of  quick-lime,  yet  its  presence,  affording 
a  base  with  which  any  acid  that  may  be  present  in  the 
soil  may  unite,  is  often  beneficial.  To  extol  ground 
limestone  as  "the  great  fertilizer  of  the  age,"  to  even 
claim  that  it  is  equal  to  lime  itself,  is  a  mistake.  Both 
have  their  uses.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  inquir- 
ers about  the  value  of  ground  limestone,  that  many  soils 
already  contain  more  lime  in  this  form  than  can  ever  be 
utilized,  and  need  no  addition. 


A  FARM  WHEELBARROW. 

The  wheelbarrow  is  an  indispensable  vehicle  on  the 
farm  and  in  the  garden.     Applied  to  hard  uses  it  needs 


133.— FARM    WHEELBAKROW. 


to  be  strong  and  durable.    A  barrow  of  the  ordinary  kind, 
used  on  farms,  soon  becomes  weak  in  the  joints  and  falls 


FAKM   COE^VEKIENCES.  169 

to  pieces.  The  movable  sides  are  inconyenient,  and  the 
shape  necessarily  adopted  when  movable  sides  are  used 
greatly  weakens  the  structure.  It  will  be  noticed  at  first 
sight  that  the  wheelbarrow,  shown  in  figure  133,  is  most 
strongly  supported  and  braced,  that  the  box,  instead  of 
weakening  it,  greatly  strengthens  it,  and  that  it  is  stout 
and  substantial..  It  is  put  together  at  every  part  by 
strong  bolts,  and  can  be  taken  apart  to  pack  for  transpor- 
tation, if  desired,  and  a  broken  part  readily  replaced. 


TO  PREVENT  THE  BALLING  OP  HORSES. 

When  the  snow  upon  the  roads  is  cohesive  and  packs 
firmly,  it  collects  upon  the  feet  of  horses,  forming  a  hard, 
projecting  mass,  in  a  manner  known  as  ^^  balling."  This 
often  occurs  to  such  an  extent  as  to  impede  the  motion 
of  the  horse,  while  it  causes  the  animal  great  discomfort, 
and  is  sometimes  dangerous  to  the  rider  or  driver.  The 
trouble  may  be  prevented  very  easily  by  the  use  of  gutta- 
percha. For  this  purpose  the  gutta-percha  should  be 
crude,  i.e.,  not  mixed  with  anything  or  manufactured 
in  any  manner,  but  just  as  imported.  Its  ai)plication 
depends  upon  the  property  which  the  gum  has  of  soften- 
ing and  becoming  plastic  by  heat,  and  hardening  again 
when  cold.  To  apply  it,  place  the  gutta-percha  in  hot 
water  until  it  becomes  soft,  and  having  well  cleansed  the 
foot,  remoying  whateyer  has  accumulated  between  the 
shoe  and  hoof,  take  a  piece  of  the  softened  gum  and  press 
it  against  the  shoe  and  foot  in  such  a  manner  as  to  fill 
the  angle  between  the  shoe  and  the  hoof,  taking  care  to 
force  it  into  the  crack  between  the  two.  Thus  filling 
the  crevices,  and  the  space  next  the  shoe,  where  the  snow 
most  firmly  adheres,  the  ball  of  snow  has  nothing  to  hold 
it,  and  it  either  does  not  form,  or  drops  out  as  soon  as  it 


170 


FARM   COlS'VEis^IENCES. 


is  gathered.  When  the  gutta-percha  is  applied,  and  well 
smoothed  off  with  the  wet  fingers,  it  may  be  hardened 
at  once,  to  prevent  the  horse  from  getting  it  out  of  place 
by  stamping,  by  the  application  of  snow  or  ice,  or  more 
slowly  by  a  wet  sponge  or  cloth.  When  it  is  desired  to 
remove  the  gum,  the  application  of  hot  water  by  means 
of  a  sponge  or  cloth  will  so  soften  it  that  it  may  be  taken 
off.  As  the  softening  and  hardening  may  be  repeated 
indefinitely,  the  same  material  will  last  for  years.  For 
a  horse  of  medium  size,  'a  quarter  of  a  pound  is  sufficient 
for  all  the  feet. 


TO  PREVENT  CATTLE  THROWING  FENCES. 

To  prevent  a  cow  from  throwing  fences  or  hooking 
other  cows,  make  a  wooden  strip  two  and  a  half  inches 
wide  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  and  attach  it 
,g__^  to  the  horns  by  screws  ;  to  this  is 

"^  '^^^^^  fastened,  by  a  small  bolf,  a  strip  of 

hardwood,  three  inches  wide,  half 
an  inch  thick,  and  of  a  length  suf- 
ficient to  reach  downward  within 
an  inch  of  the  face,  and  within  two 
or  three  inches  of  the  nostrils.  In 
the  lower  end  of  this  strip  are  pre- 
viously driven  several  sharp  nails, 
which  project  about  one-quarter 
Fig.  134.-CATTLE  CHECK,  ^f  ,^^  ^^^^^     rpj^g  arraugcmcnt  is 

shown  in  figure  134;  the  strip,  when  properly  attached, 
allows*  the  animal  to  eat  and  drink  with  all  ease,  but 
when  an  attempt  is  made  to  hook  or  to  throw  a  fence, 
the  sharpened  nails  soon  cause  an  abrupt  cessation  of 
that  kind  of  mischief. 


FARM   CONVEN'IENCES. 


171 


FEED  BOXES. 
In  figure  135  a  box  is  sliown  firmly  attached  to  two 
posts.     It  has  a  hinged   cover,  p,  that  folds  oyer,  and 
may  be  fastened  down  by  inserting  a  wooden  pin  in  the 


Fig.    135.— COVEllED   FEED  BOX. 

top  of  the  post  near  n.  The  one  given  in  figure  136 
maybe  placed  under  shelter,  along  the  side  of  a  building 
or  fence.  •  One  side  of  the  top  is  hinged  to  the  fence 

3 


j^a. 


Fig.  336.— HINGED  FEED  BOX. 

or  building,  the  bottom  resting  upon  a  stake,  e.  "When 
not  in  use,  the  box  may  be  folded  up,  the  end  of  the 
strap,  5,  hooking  over  the  pin,  ^,  at  the  side  of  the  box. 


173 


FARM    COXTENIEKCES. 


A  good  portable  box,  to  be  placed  upon  tlie  ground,  is 
shown  in  figure  137.  It  is  simply  a  common  box,  with  a 
strip  of  board,  h,  nailed  on  one  side  and  projecting  about 


Fig.  137. — PORTABLE   FEED   BOX, 

eight  inches.  When  not  in  use,  it  is  turned  bottom  up, 
as  shown  in  figure  138.  The  projecting  strip  prevents 
three  sides  of  the  box  from  settling  into  the  mud  or  snow. 
The  strip  is  also  a  very  good  handle  by  which  to  carry  it. 


Fiir.  13S. — FEED   BOX   INVERTED, 


Those  who  now  use  portable  boxes  will  find  the  attach- 
ing of  this  strip  a  decided  advantage.  A  very  serviceable 
portable  feed  box  is  made  from  a  section  of  half  a  hollow 


Fig.  139. — BOX  FROM   HOLLOW  LOG. 

log,  with  ends  nailed  on,  as  shown  in  figure  139.  By  let- 
ting the  ends  project  above  the  sides  four  or  five  inches, 
it  maybe  turned  over  when  not  in  use,  and  easily  turned 


FARM    CONVE:tTIEKCES. 


173 


back  by  grasping  the  sides  without  the  hand  coming  in 
contact  with  earth  or  snow.  All  feed  boxes  and  racks 
should  be  placed  under  shelter  during  summer,  or  when 
not  in  use. 


A  CATTLE   TIE. 

Judging  from  the  numerous  stanchions  and  arrange- 
ments for  fastening  cattle  in  stalls,  illustrated  from  time 
to  time  in  the  public  prints,  the  perfect  cattle-fastening 
has  not  yet  been  invented.  We  do  not  claim  perfection 
for  the  arrangement  given  in  figure  140,  but  it  will  be 
difficult  to  devise  a  cheaper  one,  and  we  doubt  if  any 
better  or  more  satisfactory  one  is  in  use.  The  fastening 
consists  of  a  three-fourth  inch  rojDC,  which  is  run 
through  the  partitions  of  the  stalls,  one  long  rope  being 
used  for  the  tier  of  stalls,  although  short  pieces  may  be 
employed  if  desired.     This  rope  is  knotted  on  either  side 


Fig.  140. — CATTLE   TIE. 

of  each  partition,  and  a  good  swivel  snap  for  use  with  a 
rope,  is  tied  in  the  rope  in  front  of  the  centre  of  each 
stall.     The  rope  should  pass  over,  very  nearly,  the  front 


174  FAKM   COI^TVEKIEKCES. 

of  the  manger — from  tlie  side  of  the  cattle — and  for 
cattle  of  ordinary  liiglit,  it  ought  to  be  about  two  feet 
from  the  floor.  When  put  in,  the  rope  should  be  drawn 
up  tightly,  as  it  will  soon  acquire  considerable  and 
sufficient  slack  from  the  constant  strain  from  the  ani- 
mals. With  this  arrangement  each  cow  must  be  pro- 
vided with  a  strap  or  rope  about  the  neck,  the  rope  or 
strap  being  supplied  with  a  free-moving  iron  ring. 
When  the  animal  is  jDut  in  the  stalls  the  snap  is  fastened 
in  the  ring,  and  if  the  snap  is  a  good  one — none  but  the 
best  swivel  snaps  should  be  used — an  animal  will  rarely 
get  free  from  it.  This  fastening,  it  will  be  noticed, 
admits  of  considerable  fore  and  aft  motion,  and  but 
slight  lateral  movement.  The  cost  of  this  arrangement 
it  is  difficult  to  state  accurately,  it  is  so  small.  The 
rope  for  each  stall  will  cost  less  than  five  cents  ;  the 
snaps  will  cost  ten  cents  when  bought  by  the  dozen, 
and  the  time  of  putting  these  fittings  in  each  stall  is 
less  than  fifteen  minutes.  The  rope  will  wear  two  years 
at  least. 


A  BEEF  RAISER. 

Two  posts  are  set  about  fifteen  feet  high.  A  deep 
mortise  is  cut  in  the  top  of  each  to  receive  the  roller, 
which  is  grooved  at  the  points  of  turning.  One  end  of 
the  roller  extends  beyond  the  post,  and  through  this 
end  three  two-inch  holes  are  bored.  Three  light  poles 
are  put  through  these  holes,  and  their  ends  connected 
by  a  light  rope.  In  raising  the  beef  the  middle  of  a 
stout  rope  is  thrown  over  the  roller  ;  the  ends  are  drawn 
through  the  loop,  and  after  the  beef  is  fastened  to  the 
loose  ends  the  roller  is  turned  against  the  loop  by  means 
of  the  '^  sweep,"  or  lever  arms,  figure  141.     A  heavy 


FARM   GDIS' VENIENCES.  175 

beef  can  be  easily  raised,  and  may  be  fastened  at  any 


Fig.  141. — A  BEEF  RAISER. 

bight  desired,  by  tying  the  end  of  one  of  the  levers  to 
the  post  with  a  short  rope. 


A  CEDAE,   STEM    SOIL-STIRRER. 

A  convenient  and  quickly-made  implement  for  stirring 
and  mixing  manure  and  fertilizers  with  the  soil,  may  be 


Fig.  142. — A   STIRRER   MADE   OF   A   CEDAR   STEM. 

made  as  follows  :  A  cedar  stem  is  cut  about  eight  feet 
long,  and  the  branches  cut  off  several  inches  from  the 
stem,  leaving  long  spurs  on  all  sides  for  its  whole  length, 
as  shown  in  figure  142.     A  horse  is  hitched  by  a  chain 


176  FARM   COKYENIEKCES. 

to  the  bntfc  end,  aud  the  driver  guides  the  implement  by 
a  rope  fastened  to  the  rear  end  of  the  stem.  By  means 
of  the  guide-rope  the  implement  may  be  lifted  over  or 
around  obstacles,  and  turned  at  the  end  of  the  field. 
Such  an  implement  is  specially  useful  in  mixing  fertil- 
izers with  the  soil,  when  applied  in  drills  for  hoed  crops. 


A  HINT  FOR  PIG  KILLING. 

Lay  a  log  chain  across  the  scalding  trough,  and  put 
the  pig  upon  it.     Cross  the  chaia  over  the  animal,  as 


Fig-.  143.— SCALDING  A    PIG. 

shown  in  figure  143.  A  man  at  each  end  of  the  chain 
can  easily  turn  the  pig  in  the  scald,  or  work  it  to  and 
fro  as  desired. 


MENDING  BROKEN  TOOLS. 

Farming  tools,  such  as  shovels,  rakes,  forks,  etc. ,  that 
are  much  used,  will  often,  through  carelessness  or  acci- 
dent, become  broken,  and,  with  most  men,  that  means  to 
be  thrown  one  side,  as  utterly  useless.  By  exercising  a 
little  ingenuity,  they  could  in  a  short  time  be  fitted  up 
to  do  service  for  several  years.  The  head  of  hand-rakes 
often  becomes  broken  at  the  point  where  the  handle  en- 
ters, and  not  unfrequently  the  handle  itself  is  broken  off 


FARM   COi^VEKIENCES.  177 

where  it  enters  the  head.     In  either  case  the  break  is 
easily  made  good  by  attaching  a  small  piece  of  wood  to 


Fig,  144. — A  MENDED   RAKE, 

the  head,  by  small  nails  or  screws,  as  shown  in  figure 
144.     Should  the  head  be  broken  where  one  of  the  bows 


Fig.  145,— MENDING  A  SnOVEL. 

passes  through,  it  may  be  mended  in  a  like  manner,  h. 
Shovels  and  spades,  owing  to  the  great  strain  to  which 
8^ 


178  FARM   COXVEKIEKCES. 

they  are  often  subjected,  especially  by  carelessly  prying 
with  them,  crow-bar  fashion,  are  frequently  broken,  and 
usually  at  the  point  where  the  wood  enters  the  blade. 
This  break,  bad  as  it  is,  should  not  consign  the  broken 
parts  to  the  rubbish  pile,  especially  if  the  blade  and  the 
handle  be  otherwise  in  fair  condition.  Remove  the  iron 
straps  or  ferule  from  the  handle  ;  firmly  rivet  a  strip  of 
iron,  a,  figure  145,  on  top  of  the  handle,  and  a  similar 
one  underneath,  to  the  blade  and  handle,  as  shown  in 
the  engraving.  Other  broken  tools  may  be  made  to  do 
good  service  by  proper  mending. 


A  LARGE  FEED-RACK. 


The  width  of  the  rack  is  seven  feet,  but  it  can  be  any 
length  desired ;  hight,  ten  feet ;  hight  of  manger,  two 
and  a  half  feet ;  width,  one  and  one-half  foot.  Cattle 
can  eat  from  both  sides.     The  advantage  of  such  a  rack. 


Fig.  146.— A  LARGE  YARD   FODDER-RACK. 

shown  in  figure  146,  is  that  it  will  hold  a  large  quantity 
of  feed,  and  so  securely  that  very  little  can  be  wasted  by 
the  feeding  animals. 


FAEM   COKVEKIEKCES. 
BARN  DOOR  FASTENING. 


179 


One  of  the  best  barns  in  the  country  has  its  large 
double  doors  fastened  by  a  bar  of  iron,  about  six  feet 
long,  which  is  bolted  to  one  of  the  doors  at  its  middle 
point.  The  ends  of  the  bar  are  notched,  one  upon  the 
upper  and  the  other  on  the  under  side,  to  fit  oyer  sock- 
ets or  "  hooks  "  that  are  bolted  to  the  doors.     One  hook 


Fig.  147. — IKON   BMl   DOOK   FASTENING. 

bends  upward,  and  the  other  downward,  and  the  bar 
moves  in  the  arc  of  a  circle  when  the  door  is  being  un- 
fastened or  bolted.  The  construction  of  this  door  fast- 
ening is  shown  in  figure  147 .  A  wooden  bar  may  replace 
the  iron  one,  and  may  be  of  a  size  and  length  sufificient 


Fig.    148.— WOODEN   BAR   DOOR   FASTENING. 

to  make  the  fastening  secure.  A  wooden  bar  is  shown 
in  figure  148.  Such  a  method  of  fastening  could  be 
used  for  a  single  door,  provided  it  needs  to  be  opened 
and  closed  only  from  the  inside.     By  putting  a  pin  in 


180 


FARM   COKYE:N^IE]!q"CES. 


the  bar  near  the  end  that  passes  by  the  door-post,  so  that 
it  will  reach  through  a  slot  in  the  door,  such  a  ^^ latch" 
might  be  used  for  any  door. 


A   ''FORK"  STABLE  SCRAPER. 

A  very  handy  stable  scraper  is  made  of  an  inch  board, 
five  inches  wide,  and  about  eight  inches  longer  than  the 
width  of  a  four-tined  fork.  Bore  a  hole  for  each  tine 
a  quarter  inch  in  diameter  from  the  edge  of  the  board 
to  about  two  inches  from  the  opposite  edge,  the  holes 
passing  out  upon  the  side.  The  lower  part  of  the  board 
is  bevelled  behind,  thus  forming  a  good  scraping  edge. 
After  the  coarse  manure  is  pitched  up,  the  fork  is  in- 


FORK"    BARX   SCRAPER. 


serted  in  the  holes  of  the  board,  and  a  scraper  is  at  once 
ready  for  use,  figure  149.  To  store  it,  nail  a  cleat  on  the 
floor  two  inches  from  the  wall,  and  secure  the  scraper 
behind  this  cleat ;  place  one  foot  upon  the  board  and 


FAEM    COKVEI^IENCES. 


181 


withdraw  the  fork.     Notches  may  be  cut  in  the  edge  of 
the  board  opposite  each  hole,  to  assist  in  placing  the  tines. 


A  METHOD  OF  CUHING  HAY. 

A  method  of  curing  hay  which  has  been  used  for  sev- 
eral years  with  entire   satisfaction   consists  in  taking 


V.*«Jil'" 


Fig.   150.— THE  FRAME. 

four  slender  stakes  six  feet  long,  a,  a,  a,  a  (figure  150), 


Fio;.  151,— THE    SMALL    STACK. 


fastened  together  at  the  upper  ends  with  a  loose  joint 
similar  to  that  of  an  ordinary  tripod.     One  end  of  the 


182 


FAEM   COl^VENIEI^CES. 


fifth  stake,  I,  rests  on  one  of  the  four  legs  about  a  foot 
from  the  ground,  the  other  end  resting  on  the  ground. 
The  hay  is  stacked  around  this  frame  nearly  to  the  top 
of  the  stakes,  after  which  the  stake,  h,  is  withdrawn, 
and  then  the  four  upright  stakes  are  removed.  This  is 
done  by  two  men  with  hay  forks,  w^ho  raise  them  directly 
upwards.  As  soon  as  the  legs  are  lifted  from  the  ground 
the  pressure  of  the  hay  brings  them  together,  and  they 
can  be  removed  with  ease,  leaving  a  small  stack  of  hay, 
as  shown  in  figure  151,  with  an  air  passage  running  from 
the  bottom  upwards  through  the  centre  of  the  small  stack, 
as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines. 


GRANARY    CONVENIENCES. 


The  better  plan  for  constructing  grain  bins  is  to  have 
the  upper  front  boards  movable,  that  the  contents  may 


Fisr.  152.— STEPS  r>r  a  graxart. 


be  more  readily  reached  as  they  lessen.  But  as  there  are 
tens  of  thousands  of  granaries  where  the  front  bin  boards 
are  firmly  nailed,  a  portable  step,  like  that  shown  in 
figure  152,  is  almost  a  necessity.     It  should  have  two 


FARM   COKYEl^IEISrCES. 


183 


steps  of  nine  inches  each,  and  be  one  foot  wide,  and  two 
feet  long  on  top.  It  is  light  and  is  easily  moyed  about 
the  granary. 

Every  owner  of  a  farm  needs  a  few  extra  sieves,  which, 
when  not  in  nse,  are  usually  thrown  in  some  corner,  or 


Fig.  153, — A  SIEVE  KACK. 

laid  on  a  box  or  barrel  to  be  knocked  about  and  often  in- 
jured by  this  rough  handling,  besides  being  frequently 
in  the  way.     A  little  rack,  which  may  be  readily  made 


Fig.  154,— A  GRAIN   BAG  SOLDEK. 

above  one  of  the  bins  in  the  granary,  as  shown  in  figure 
153,  is  convenient  to  put  sieves  out  of  the  way,  and  keep 
them  from  injury. 


184  FARM   COXVEKIEKCES. 

Grain  bags  are  too  expensive  and  yaluable  to  be  scat- 
tered about  the  buildings.  A  simple  mode  of  securing 
them  is  shown,  which  is  at  once  chea23  and  safe.  In  the 
ceiling  over  the  bins,  staples  are  driven  about  four  feet 
apart,  to  which  are  attached  j)ieces  of  wire  two  feet  in 
length.  To  these  wires  is  fastened  a  jDole  five  feet  in 
length,  over  which  the  bags  are  thrown  when  not  in  use, 
and  they  are  then  out  of  reach  of  mice  from  the  bins  and 
wall,  as  shown  in  figure  154. 


A  NON-SLIPPING  CHAIN  FOR  BOULDERS. 

One  great  trouble  in  hauling  boulders  or  large  stones 
with  team  and  chain  is  the  liability  of  the  chain  to  slip 
ofP,  especially  if  the  stone  is  nearly  round.  By  the  use 
of  the  contrivance  shown  in  figure  155,  nearly  all  of  this 
trouble  is  avoided.  It  consists  in  passing  two  log  chains 
around  the  stone  and  connecting  them  a  few  inches 
above  the  ground  by  a  short  chain  or  even  a  piece  of  rope 
or  wire.  Connect  the  chains  in  a  similar  manner  near 
the  top  of  the  stone.  The  ends  of  the  draught  chains 
are  attached  to  the  wiiipple-trees  in  any  way  desired.     In 


Fig.  155. — METHOD   OP  FASTENING   CHAINS   ON  A  BOULDER. 

hauling  down  an  incline,  or  where  the  ground  is  very 
rough,  it  will  be  best  to  wrap  each  chain  clear  around 
the  stone,  connecting  with  whipple-trees  by  a  single  chain, 
thereby  preventing  a  possibility  of  the  chains  becoming 
detached  or  misplaced  in  any  way. 


FARM   C0HVEHIE:NCES. 


185 


A  PITCPIFORK  HOLDER. 


Having  occasion  to  go  into  the  barn  one  night,  we 
received  a  very  bad  wound  from  a  pitchfork  which  had 
fallen  from  its  standing  position.  This  led  us  to  con- 
struct a  holder,  shown  in  the  engravings.  The  fork- 
holder  is  made  of  an  inch  board,  of  a  semicircular 
shape,  with  five  holes  large  enough  to  admit  a  fork 
handle,  bored  near  the  curved  side.  This  board  is  nailed 
to  a  standing  post  in  the  bam.  A  strap  or  curved  bolt 
is  placed  some  distance  below  to  hold  the  handles  in 


Fig.    156. — FRONT  VIEW. 


Fiff.    157.— SIDE  VIEW. 


place,  as  they  rest  on  a  bottom  board  fixed  for  the  pur- 
pose. Figure  156  shows  the  front  view  of  the  holder; 
figure  157  gives  the  side  view. 


180 


FA  KM    CO]S"VENIEN"CES. 


A  CONVENIENT  HOG  LOADER. 

Figure  158  shows  the  'Hoacler  ''  attached  to  a  wagon, 
with  the  rack.  The  bed-piece  consists  of  two  pine  boards, 
SIX  inches  wide  by  nine  feet  long.  These  are  fastened 
together  by  three  cross-pieces  of  the  same  material,  of 
proper  length,  so  that  the  *^bed''  will  just  fit  in  between 
the  sides  of  the  wagon-box.  A  floor  is  laid  on  these 
cross-pieces,  on  which  short  strips  of  lath  are  nailed,  to 
prevent  hogs  from  slii)ping.  At  one  end  the  sides  are 
notched  to  fit  on  the  bottom  of  the  wagon-box.  There  are 
two  staples  on  each  side  by  which  the  sides  are  fastened 
on.  The  ''  rack  ''  is  made  like  an  ordinary  top-box,  with 
the  exception  that  each  side  is  composed  of  three  narrow 
boards  about  four  inches  apart,  and  nailed  to  three  cleats 
(the  two  end  cleats  to  be  on  the  inside,  and  the  middle 
one  on  the  outside   of  the  rack),  and  projecting  down 


Fis:.  158.— RACK  for  loading  hogs. 


the  side  of  the  wagon-box.  End-boards  are  made  and 
fastened  in  like  those  of  an  ordinary  wagon-box.  For 
unloading  the  hogs  nothing  but  the  bed-piece  need  be 
used,  which,  being  light,  may  be  easily  thrown  on  and 
taken  with  the  wagon. 


FARM   COXVENIEKCES. 


187 


A  HOME-MADE   ROLLER. 

Take  a  log  six  or  eight  feet  long,  eighteen  or  twenty 
inches  in  diameter,  and  pnt  pins  in  each  end  for  journals, 
either  of  wood  one  and  a  half  inch,  or  iron  one  inch. 
Make  a  frame  of  two  hy  four  scantlings,  or  flat  rails 
three  or  four  feet  long  to  suit  the  size  of  the  roller. 
Bore  holes  for  journals  a  little  back  of  centre,  and  also 
inch-holes  two  inches  from  the  back  end  of  scantlings. 
Fasten  these  ends  together  with  a  chain  or  rope  tight 
enough  to  keep  the  scantlins's  square  with  the  ends  of 


,^'u 


Fig.    159. — A.  HOME-MADE   KOLLER. 

the  log,  figure  159.  Fasten  the  front  ends  together 
with  a  stiff  pole  or  rail,  and  put  a  heayy  chain  across 
the  front,  with  one  end  around  each  front  corner.  Attach 
the  double-tree  at  the  middle  of  this  chain.  The  draft 
chain  and  the  pole  will  keep  the  front  ends  of  the  frame 
in  position,  and  the  chain  behind  will  prevent  the  rear 
ends  from  spreading.  When  the  roller  goes  faster  than 
the  team,  the  draft  chain  will  slacken,  and  the  front  of 
the  frame  will  drop  and  preyent  the  roller  from  striking 
the  team.  A  roller  is  such  a  yaluable  implement  that 
there  should  be  one  in  use  on  every  farm.  Even  a  rough 
home-made  roller  is  better  than  none,  whether  it  is  used 
to  break  up  clods,  or  to  compact  the  soil  after  sowing. 

A  LAND  SCRAPER. 
In  districts  where  land  needs  draining,  scrapers  must 
be  used.     A  yery  good  one  Js  shown  in  figure  160.     It 


188 


PARM    CONVENIENCES. 


has  one  advantage  over  most  scrapers  :  the  team  can  stay 
on  the  bank  while  the  scraper  is  thrown  into  the  ditch. 
When  the   ditch  is  a  large  one,  fourteen  feet  or  more 


Fig.  1(5U.— A  LAND   SCKAPEK. 

wide  at  the  top,  it  is  only  necessary  to  lengthen  the 
chain.  The  scraper  consists  of  two  boards,  twelve  inches 
wide  and  three  feet  long,  fastened  firmly  together  by  two 
strong  iron  plates,  figure  161,  jy,  p,  bolts,  and  rod-iron 
nails.     The  scraper-edge  is  made  of  an  old  cross-cut  saw. 


101.— FRONT   OF    SCRAPER. 

fastened  on  with  rod-iron  nails.  Two  notches  are  cut 
at  p,  p,  for  the  hooks  to  pass  through,  also  one  at  7i, 
for  a  holder  for  lifting  the  scraper  when  necessary. 
To  make  the  scraper  work  perfectly,  the  rod  or  hook 
should  have  the  right  bend,  as  shown  at  a,  figure  162, 


FARM   CONVENIENCES.  189 

The  hook  is  fastened  to  the  scrapei'  by  two  bolts,  b,  h, 


Fig.  162.— THE   HOOK-ROD. 

figure  162,  and  small  pins,  c,  when  the  land  scraper  is 
complete. 


A  HOME-MADE  BAG-HOLDER. 

This  bag-holder  is  one  of  the  most  useful  articles  a 
man  can  have  in  his  barn.  It  consists  of  a  post,  a,  two 
by  four  inches,  and  five  feet  long,  with  six  one-half  inch 
holes  near  the  upper  end,  as  shown  in  figure  163.  The 
bar,  h,  passes  through  a  mortise  and  over  the  pin  nearest 


Fig.    163.— A   HANDY  BAG-HOLDER. 

the  bag,  and  under  the  other  pin.  This  bar  can  be 
moved  up  or  down,  to  suit  the  length  of  the  bag.  The 
post,  ttf  sets  in  a  bed-piece,  c,  two  by  three  inches  and 


190 


FAEM   COXVEIn"IEXCES. 


two  feet  long.  A  board,  d,  eighteen  inches  square,  fast- 
ened upon  the  bed-piece,  furnishes  the  necessary  rest  for 
the  bag.  The  mouth  of  the  bag  is  held  open  by  means 
of  hooks  placed  on  the  ends  of  the  cross-bar,  with  an- 
other beneath  the  main  bar. 


A   SAFETY  EGG-CARRIER. 

In  figure  164,  a  represents  the  bottom-board  of  the 
spring-box,  near  the  edges  of  which  are  fastened  six  wire- 
coil  springs  or  bed-springs.  At  l  is  represented  a  hole 
made  in  the  board  to  receive  the  lower  end  of  the  spring, 
about  half  an  inch  of  which  is  bent  down  for  that  pur- 
pose.    Small  staples  are  driven  into  the  board  to  hold 


Fig.  164. — BOTTOM-BOARD   OF   SPKIXG-BOX, 

the  springs  in  place.  Scraps  of  leather  or  tin  might  be 
tacked  or  screwed  down,  instead  of  using  staples ;  rZ,  d, 
are  leather  straps,  an  inch  or  more  wide,  and  long 
enough  to  reach  from  the  bottom-board,  w^here  each  one 
is  fastened  by  two  screws,  to  the  egg-box,  after  being 
placed  on  the  springs.     Figure  165  represents  the  side 


FARM   CONVENIEKCES. 


191 


and  end  boards,  which^  wlien  placed  over  the  bottom- 
board  holding  the  springs,  forms  the  spring-box  ;  screAvs 
fasten  the  side  and  end-boards  to  the  bottom-board  of 
the  spring-box,  pieces  of  tin  being  nailed  around  the 
corners  of  the  box,  to  give  it  proper  strength,  the  nails 
being  clinched  on  the  inside. 

After  securing  the  springs  and  straps  to  the  bottom- 
board,  the  egg-box  should  be  placed  on  the  springs, 
and  the  points  of  the  springs  placed  in  holes  previously 
made  in  the  bottom  of  the  egg-box  to  receive  them. 
Now  put  a  sufficient  weight  in  the  egg-box  to  settle  it 
down  firmly  on  the  springs,  and  fasten  the  upper  ends 
of  the  straps  to  the  box,  being  careful  to  have  the  box 


"Fig.  165.— PRAME   FOK   HOLDING  EGG-BOX. 

set  level.  Having  done  this,  take  the  part,  figure  165, 
and  put  it  down  over  the  egg-box  to  its  place,  and  make 
it  fast  to  the  bottom-board  of  the  spring-box  with  heavy 
screws.  The  object  of  the  bottom,  figure  165,  is  to  keep 
the  springs  from  being  strained  to  one  side  in  going  over 
rough  ground.  It  should  be  made  one-quarter  inch  or 
so  larger  than  the  egg-box,  that  the  latter  may  have  the 
benefit  of  the  springs.  Our  former  custom  was  to  put 
a  feeding  of  hay  in  the  wagon-box,  about  midway  from 
one  end  to  the  other,  place  the  egg-box  on  the  hay,  and 
drive  carefully  over  the  rough  places.     But  more  or  less 


192 


FARM   CON-VEN^IENCES. 


eggs  would  be  broken,  the  best  we  could  do,  whether 
they  were  packed  in  bran  or  put  in  paper  *•  boxes  "or 


Fiil-.  166. — ^EGG-BOX  COMPLETE. 


cases.  After  setting  the  box  on  springs  as  described, 
place  it  on  the  bottom  boards  of  the  wagon-box,  with 
one  end  directly  over  the  forward  axle  of  the  wagon. 


A  BUSH-ROLLER. 

Figure  137  shows  a  device  which  has  been  made  for 
clearing  sage-bush  land.  It  consists  of  a  roller,  eight 
feet  long  and  tAvo  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  coupled 
by  a  short  tongue — six  feet  is  long  enough — to  the  for- 
ward wheels  of  a  wagon.  A  standard  at  each  end  of  the 
roller-frame  supports  a  cross-piece  just  clear  of  the 
roller.  Upon  this  cross-piece,  about  four  feet  apart, 
and  extending  to  the  bolster  of  the  wagon,  are  bolted 
two  pieces  of  one  and  a  quarter  by  six-inch  spruce 
boards.  A  board  is  placed  across  the  centre  for  a  seat, 
thus  making  a  complete  and  easy-inclining  ^^buck- 
board."  "With  a  span  of  good  horses  and  this  machine, 
figure  167,  one  can  roll  from  eight  to  ten  acres  of  sage- 


FARM   CONVENIENCES.  193 

bush  in  a  day  ;  and  it  is  so  easily  killed,  that  in  two  or 


Fig.  167. — A  HOME-MADE  BUSH-KOLLEK. 

three  weeks  after  such  treatment,  it  will  burn  off  like  a 
prairie  on  fire. 


BROOD-SOW   PENS. 


Figures  168  and  169  represent  a  convenient  arrange- 
ment for  brood  sows.      The  pens  are  not  equal  to  the 


Fig.  168. — PLAN  OF   CHEAP   PIG-PEN. 

costly  piggeries  of  wealthy  breeders,  but  they  answer  a 
good  purpose  in  a  new  country,  where  farmers    are 
obliged  to  get  along  cheaply.     Many  who  have  built  ex- 
9 


194 


FARM   COi^VEXIEKCES. 


pensive  li.ouses  say  these  pens  answer  a  better  purpose. 
First,  there  is  a  tightly-boarded  pen  (except  in  front), 
sixteen  feet  by  twelve  feet.  This  is  divided  into  four 
nests,  twelve  by  four  feet.  A 
shed  roof  extends  eight  feet  from 
the  rear.  The  tops  of  the  nests 
are  covered  with  boards,  and  the 
space  between  this  room  and  the 
roof  is  filled  with  straw,  making 
it  wind-tight,  except  in  front. 
When  young  pigs  are  expected 
during  the  cold  weather  of  winter, 
hang  a  gunny  sack  in  front  of  the  nest.  The  doors, 
figure  169,  are  the  most  convenient.  The  board  door  is 
slipped  in  from  the  top,  between  pairs  of  cross-boards  in 
the  pig-pen. 


A  RABBIT  TRAP. 


Eabbits  are  a  great  nuisance  both  in  the  garden  and 
orchard,  and  a  tra]3  of  the  following  kind  put  in  a  black- 


Fis:.  170.— A  GOOD  rabbit  trap. 


berry  patch,  or  some  place  where  they  like  to  hide,  will 
thin  them  out  wonderfully,  A  common  salt  barrel,  with 


FARM   COKVEKIENCES.  195 

a  notch  sawed  out  at  the  top,  is  set  in  the  ground  level 
with  the  top.  There  is  an  entrance  box,  four  feet  long, 
with  side  ]3ieces  seven  inches  wide — top  and  bottom  four 
and  a  half  or  five  inches.  The  bottom  board  is  cut  in 
two  at  5,  and  is  somewhat  narrower  than  in  front,  that  it 
may  tilt  easily  on  a  pivot  at  c.  A  small  washer  should 
be  placed  on  each  side  of  the  trap  at  c,  that  it  may  not 
bind  in  tilting.  The  distance  from  I?  to  c  should  be 
somewhat  longer  than  from  c  to  d,  that  the  board  will 
fall  back  in  place  after  being  tipped.  No  bait  is  re- 
quired, because  a  rabbit  (hare)  is  always  looking  for  a 
place  of  security.  The  bottom  of  the  box  should  be  even 
with  the  top  of  the  ground  at  the  entrance  to  the  top  of 
the  barrel.  The  barrel  should  be  covered  closely  with  a 
board,  as  shown  in  figure  170.  Eemove  the  rabbits  from 
the  trap  as  fast  as  they  are  caught. 


WOODEN  STABLE  FLOOR. 

Elm  makes  an  excellent  and  durable  stable  floor  ;  the 
fibre  of  the  wood  is  tough  and  yielding.  The  planks 
should  be  secured  in  position  by  wooden  pins,  as  they 
are  constantly  liable  to  warp.  Any  of  the  soft  oaks 
make  a  good  floor ;  the  hard,  tough  varieties  are  un- 
yielding, and,  until  they  have  been  in  use  several  months, 
horses  are  liable  to  slip  and  injure  themselves  in  getting 
up.  Both  pine  and  hemlock  make  good  floors,  being 
soft  and  yielding,  but  they  are  not  as  durable  as  many 
other  woods.  Planks  for  a  stable  floor  should  be  two  and 
a  half  inches  in  thickness,  and  not  laid  until  quite  thor- 
oughly seasoned,  and  then  always  put  down  lengthwise 
of  the  stall,  and  upon  another  floor  laid  crosswise,  as 
shown  at  d,  h,  l,  figure  171.  The  planks  of  this  floor, 
or  cross  floor,  should  be  laid  one  inch  apart,  that  they 


196 


FARM   CON-VEKIENCES. 


may  the  more  readily  dry  off,  and  offer  a  better  ventila- 
tion to  the  floor  above.  Unless  the  upper  floor  is  of  ma- 
terial liable  to  warp,  it  should  not  be  nailed  or  pinned, 
but  made  as  close-fitting  as  possible.  It  is  not  profitable 
or  necessary  to  have  the  stall  planks  more  than  eleven 
and  a  half  feet  in  length,  or  extend  farther  back  than 
the  stall  partition,  as  shown  at  e,  e.     This  plan  leaves  a 


Fig.  171.— MANNER   OF   LAYING   A   STABLE   FLOOR. 

wide  smooth  walk  behind  the  stalls  at  h,  so  necessary 
for  ease  and  rapidity  in  cleaning  the  manure  from  the 
stable. 

Some  horse-keepers  prefer  a  slatted  floor,  similar  to 
that  shown  in  figure  172.  Material  of  the  proper  length, 
four  inches  wide  and  two  inches  thick,  is  set  upon  edge, 
as  at  li,  with  a  strip  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick  and 
one  and  a  half  inch  wide  placed  between  the  slats,  the 
whole  made  to  fit  the  stall  as  closely  as  possible.  By  this 
method  it  is  quite  impossible  for  horses  to  becom.e  so 


FARM    COKVENTEXCES. 


197 


dirty  as  when  lying  upon  a  common  plank  floor,  as  the 
space  between  the  slats  form  a  most  admirable  channel 


Fig.  173. — A  SLATTED  STABLE  FLOOR. 

for  carrying  off  the  urine.  A  few  days'  constant  use 
somewhat  clogs  the  passages,  but  they  are  readily  opened 
by  using  a  home-made  cleaner,  like  that  shown  in  figure 
173.     Stable  floors  should  have  at  least  one  inch  descent 


,^vviVv 


Fig.  173.— A  CLEANER  FOR  A  SLATTED  FLOOR. 

in  ten  feet,  and  many  make  the  descent  three  and  even 
four  inches  in  the  same  distance,  but  this  is  unnecessary. 
All  stabled  animals  should  stand  upon  floors  as  nearly 
level  as  is  consistent  with  cleanliness. 


A  RAIL  HOLDER  OR   "GRIP." 

Drive  two  posts,  &,  h,  figure  174,  three  feet  long,  firmly 
in  the  ground,  four  feet  apart,  between  two  parallel  logs, 
a,  a.     A  third  post  or  *'jaw,"  c,  somewhat  shorter,  is 


198 


FARM    COis^VENIEK^CES. 


mortised  in  a  block  placed  between  the  logs,  and  out  of 
line  with,  or  to  one  side  of  the  posts,  l,  l,  so  as  to  hold 
a  rail,  d,  between  the  three.  A  leyer,  e,  eight  feet  long, 
and  heavy  at  the  outer  end,  is  mortised  into  another 
block,  which  is  placed  on  the  side  of  5,  l,  both  blocks 
bearing  against  the  posts.     The  leyer  and  jaw  are  con- 


Fig.  174. — A  RAIL  HOLDER. 

nected  by  a  chain  passing  around  the  lever,  over  its  block 
and  through  a  hole  in  the  jaw.  An  iron  pin  through  a 
link  couples  them  just  enough  apart  to  hold  a  rail  firmly 
when  the  lever  is  on  the  ground.  To  remove  the  rail, 
raise  the  lever  and  rest  it  upon  the  small  post,  /,  at  the 
farther  end,  which  slackens  the  chain. 


A  CHEAP  AXD   DURABLE   GRINDSTOXE-BOX  AKD 
HANGERS. 

A  good  grindstone,  well  hung,  is  one  of  the  most  val- 
uable aids  about  the  farm  or  workshop.  Those  who 
cannot  afford  to  buy  a  very  neat  and  handy  grindstone 
frame  of  the  hardware  dealers,  will  find  a  frame  and 
hangers  shown  in  figure  175,  that  for  convenience,  cheap- 


TARM   COI^VEiq^IEKCES.  199 

ness,  and  durability  is  hard  to  excel.  The  frame  con- 
sists of  a  well-seasoned  '^  trough  "  of  pine  or  other  wood, 
fourteen  inches  square  (or  even  one  foot  square),  and 
from  two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  feet  in  length, 
to  which  legs  are  nailed  at  I,  h,  four  inches  wide,  an 
inch  and  a  half  thick,  and  bevelled  at  the  top.  Sup- 
ports or  hangers,  h,  h,  are  nailed  firmly  to  the  side,  as 
indicated ;  they  should  be  hard  wood,  and  of  a  size  to 
corresj)ond  with  dimensions  and  weight  of  stone.  The 
shaft  may  be  of  iron  or  wood  ;  fit  a  piece  of  sheet  lead, 
or  piece  of  lead  pipe,  properly  flattened  out,  in  the  top 
of  each  hanger  ;  this  will  cause  the  shaft  to  turn  easily, 
and  prevent  all  squeaking  for  want  of  oil.  The  wooden 
plug  at  r,  is  for  drawing  off  the  water  after  each  using 
of  the  stone,  and  should  in  no  case  be  neglected.  If  one 
side  of  the  stone  is  left  standing  in  water,  it  softens,  and 


Fig.  175. — A  BOX   FOR  A  GRINDSTONE. 

the  surface  will  soon  wear  quite  uneven.  After  the  box 
is  completed,  giye  it  one  heayy  coat  of  boiled  oil ;  then 
in  a  few  days  apply  a  coat  of  lead  and  oil,  and  with  even 
common  care,  it  will  last  a  lifetime.  When  the  stone 
becomes  worn,  it  is  kept  down  to  the  water  by  simply 
deepening  the  groove  in  the  top  of  the  hangers.    Always 


200  FARM   CONVENIENCES. 

buy  a  long  shaft  for  a  grindstone,  for  in  this  age  of  reap- 
ers and  mowers,  the  cutting  apparatus  of  which  must  be 
ground,  a  long  shaft  for  a  grindstone  is  almost  a  neces- 
sity, or  truly  a  great  convenience.  If  the  grindstone  is 
to  stand  out-doors,  always  cover  it  with  a  closely  fitting 
wooden  box  when  it  is  not  in  use. 


A   "LADDER"  FOR  LOADING  CORN. 

Take  a  plank  two  inches  thick,  ten  inches  wide,  and 
eight  feet  long.  Nail  upon  one  side  of  it  cleats,  of  one- 
inch  by  two-inch  stuff,  at  easy  stepping  distances  apart. 
At  the  upper  end  nail  upon  the  underside  of  the  plank 
a  cleat  projecting  four  inches  upon  either  side,  to  which 


attach  small  ropes  or  chains,  and  suspend  the  ladder 
from  the  hind  end  of  the  rack,  so  that  one  end  of  the 
plank  will  rest  upon  the  ground.  This  makes  a  very 
convenient  step-ladder,  up  which  a  man  can  carry  a  large 
armful  of  fodder,  and  thus  load  his  wagon  to  its  full  ca- 
pacity wath  greater  ease  than  two  men  could  load  it  from 
the  ground.  I  find  it  of  great  convenience  to  me  when 
hauling  com  fodder  alone.  The  "  Ladder"  is  shown  in 
figure  176. 


FARM   COi^VEKIEi^CES. 


201 


PROTECTING  OUTLET  OF  DRAINS. 

Oue  of  the  greatest  annoyances  in  underdraining  is 
the  trouble  arising  from  the  outlet  becoming  choked  or 
filled  up  by*  the  trampling  of  animals,  the  action  of 
frost,  or  even  of  water  in  times  of  freshets.     This  trouble 


Fi<i-.   177. — END   OF    TILE   DRAIN. 


is  quite  successfully  overcome  by  the  arrangement  as  shown 
in  figure  177;  it  consists  of  a  plank,  ten  or  twelve  inches 
in  width,  and  five  or  six  feet  in  length,  with  a  notch  cut 
in  one  side,  near  the   centre.     This  plank  is  set  upon 


Fig.  178.— LOGS  AT  END   OF   DRAIN. 

edge  at  the  outlet  of  the  drain,  with  the  notch  directly 
over  the  end  of  the  tile,  and  is  held  in  position  by  several 
stakes  on  the  outside,  with  earth  or  stone  thrown  against 
the  opposite  side.  This  plan  is  best  for  all  light  soils, 
9* 


202 


FARM   CONVEKIENCES. 


while  for  heavy  clay  land  the  one  shown  in  figure  178  is 
just  as  good,  and  in  most  cases  will  prove  more  durable. 
It  consists  of  two  logs,  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter, 
and  from  three  to  ten  feet  in  length,  placed  parallel 
with  the  drain,  and  about  six  inches  apart^  the  whole  is 
covered  with  plank  twenty  inches  long,  laid  crosswise. 
Flat  stones  will  answer  and  are  more  lasting  than  planks. 
The  whole  is  covered  with  earth,  at  least  eighteen  inches 
in  depth  ;  two  feet  or  more  would  be  better,  especially  if 
the  soil  is  to  be  plowed  near  the  outlet. 


A  LOG  BOAT. 

A  convenient  boat  for  dragging  logs  is  shown  in  figure 
179.  The  runners,  d,  d,  are  two  by  six  inches  and  four 
and  a  half  feet  long ;  the  plank  is  two  by  nine  inches, 
and  three  and  a  half  feet  long.  A  mortise  is  made  at  h 
for  the  chain  to  pass  through.  The  cross-piece,  c,  is  four 
bv  seven  inches,  and  three  and  a  half  feet  lonof,  and 
worked  down  to  four  and  a  half  inches  in  the  middle. 
Notches  are  cut  into  the  cross-piece  four  inches  wide  and 
two  inches  deep,  to  receive  the  scantlings,  e,  e,  two  by 


Fig.  179.— A  STOUT  LOG  BOAT. 

four  inches,  and  three  feet  long,  which  are  fastened  down 
by  strong  bolts,  as  shown  at  the  dotted  lines,  /.  /.  The 
two  bolts  in  front,  5, 1,  go  through  the  scantling,  plank 
and  runner,  while  the  bolts,  cj,  g,  pass  only  through  the 
plank  and  runner. 
It  will  be  more  convenient  to  load  the  logs  by  horses. 


FARM   COiTVENIEN-CES.  203 

as  shown  in  the  illustration,  figure  180.  The  boat  is 
raised  with  its  upper  side  against  the  log.  The  chain  is 
fastened  to  the  cross-piece  at  a,  with  the  large  hook,  and 
the  other  end  is  put  around  the  log,  under  the  runner 
and  cross-piece  at  I,  and  pulled  through  between  the 
runner  and  scantling  at  c,  when  the  end  of  the  chain,  d, 
is  fastened  to  the  whippletree.     As  the  team  is  started,  the 


180.— LOADING   THE  LOGS. 


boat  tips  over,  with  the  log  on  top.  Loosen  the  chain 
from  the  two-horse  eyener,  and  pull  it  back  through  the 
runner  and  scantling  at  c,  and  through  the  hole. 


CHEAP  AND  DURABLE  WAGON  SEATS, 

It  is  tiresome  to  be  jolted  over  rough  roads,  in  a  wagon 
without  springs,  with  a  simple  board  for  a  seat ;  but  no 
farmer  or  cartman  need  adhere  to  this  practice,  when 
comfortable  and  portable  seats  can  be  so  easily  and 
cheaply  made. 

For  a  one-man  seat,  that  shown  in  figure  181  is  the 
simplest  and  most  durable,  and  should  be  one  foot  longer 


Fig.  181.— SPRING   SEAT   FOR   ONE   PERSON. 

than  the   wagon-box  is  wide  ;   the  connecting  blocks 
should  be  four  inches  high,  and  placed  near  the  ends. 


204  FAKM   COi^YEKIENCES. 

The  one  shown  in  figure  182  is  arranged  for  two  persons, 
the  connecting  block  being  placed  in  the  centre,  the 
ends  being  kept  a  uniform  distance  apart  by  bolts,  with 
the  nut  upon  the  lower  side,  out  of  the  way.     The  hole 


Fig.  182. — A   DOUBLE   SPRING  SEAT. 

for  the  bolt  through  the  lower  board  should  be  just  large 
enough  to  allow  the  bolt  to  play  freely. 

In  figure  183  is  shown  a  seat  a  little  more  expensive, 
yet  far  more  elastic.  Both  boards  are  eight  inches  longer 
than  the  width  of  the  box  upon  which  they  rest.  At 
each  end  of  the  top-board  is  mortised  or  nailed  in  a  strip 
of  hard  wood,  one  inch  thick,  two  inches  wide,  and 
about  seven  inches  in  length,  which  is  made  to  pass 
freely  up  and  down  in  a  corresponding  notch  sawed  in 


Fig.    183.— A   COILED   SPRING   SEAT. 

the  end  of  the  lower  board.  At  or  near  each  comer  of 
the  seat  is  placed  a  coiling  spring.  A  pin,  passed 
through  the  wooden  strip  near  the  bottom,  keeps  the 
seat-boards  from  separating. 


A  BAG-HOLDER  ON  PLATFORM  SCALES, 

Figure  184  shows  a  contrivance  which  does  away  with 
the  need  of  a  second  person  in  filling  grain  bags, 
and  is  both  cheap  and  simple.  It  is  attached  to  a 
platform  scales  for  convenience  in  vreighing,  and  consists 


FAEM   COi^^VEKIENCES. 


205 


of  an  iron  lioop,  nearly  as  large  around  as  a  bag.  The 
.hoop  has  four  small  hooks  on  it,  at  equal  distances  apart, 
to  which  the  bag  is  fastened.  Attached  to  the  hoop  is 
a  piece  of  iron  about  six  inches  long,  exclusive  of  the 
shank,  which  slips  into  a  socket  fastened  to  the  front  of 
the  upright  enclosing  the  rods,  that  run  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  scale  to  the  weighing  beam.  This  iron  and 
hoop  are  fastened  securely  together.  The  shank  should 
fit  loosely  in  the  socket,  to  let  the  hoop  tilt  down,  so 
that  the  bag  can  be  readily  unhooked.  There  is  an  eye- 
bolt  in  the  hoop  where  the  iron  rod  joins  it,  and  a  rod 


Fig.  184.— A  BAG-HOLDER  ON  PLATFORM  SCALES, 

with  a  hook  on  the  upper  end  is  fastened  into  it.  This 
rod  reaches  to  a  staple  fastened  above  the  socket  on  the 
upright  of  the  scales,  as  shown  in  figure  184.  When  the 
hook  on  the  end  of  this  rod  is  slipped  into  the  staple,  it 
lifts  the  hoop  to  a  level  position,  and  is  of  sufiicient 
strength  to  hold  a  bag  of  grain.  The  hoop  should  be 
high  enough  to  allow  a  bag  to  clear  the  platform  of  the 


206 


FARM   CONVENIENCES. 


scales.  When  filled,  a  sharp  blow  of  the  hand  remoyes 
the  hook  of  the  sustaining  rod,  and  lets  the  hoop  tilt 
downward,  when  the  bag  rests  on  the  platform.  The 
hoop  can  be  swung  to  one  side,  and  entirely  out  of  the 
way.  We  have  a  sort  of  hopper  made  out  of  an  old  dish 
pan  with  the  bottom  cut  out.  It  is  yery  conyenient  to 
keep  grain  from  spilling  while  filling  the  bags. 


MAKING  BOARD  DRAINS. 

On  yery  many  farms,  wooden  drains  are  used  in  place 
of  tiles,  but  mostly  in  new  districts  where  timber  is  cheap, 
and  tiles  cannot  be  purchased  without  much  expense: 
They  will  answer  the  purpose  well,  Avithout  much  ex- 
pense.    Wooden  drains,  if  laid  deep  enough,  so  that  the 


Fig.  185.— FRAME  FOR  HOLDING  BOARDS. 

frost  will  not  affect  them,  will  last  many  years.  We  know 
of  an  old  drain  that  has  been  built  twelve  years,  where 
the  timber  is  still  sound  in  some  spots.  To  make  w^ooden 
drains,  two  men  are  generally  required — one  to  hold  the 
boards,  and  another  to  nail  them.  This  mode  of  con- 
structing board  drains  can  be  improved  upon  by  making 
a  "standard,'*'  which  consists  of  an  upright  board  three 
feet  high,  having  notches  cut  into  it  six  inches  apart, 
one  inch  wide,  and  several  inches  deep,  to  hold  the 
boards  firm.  The  boards  l,  I,  figure  185,  are  laid  into 
the  notches,  n,  n,  when  the  top  board  can  be  quickly 


FARM   CONVENIENCES.  207 

and  easily  nailed  on.  Another  method,  shown  in  figure 
186,  consists  of  two  posts,  driven  into  the  ground  about 
three  feet  from  a  fence,  with  a  board  nailed  across  from 


Fig.  186.— FRAME  BY  A  FENCE. 

each  post  to  the  fence.  Notches  are  then  cut  into  each 
cross-board  several  inches  deep,  when  it  will  be  ready 
for  use. 


PUT  THINGS  IN  THEIR  PLACES. 

We  have  in  mind  an  extensive  and  Vv^ell-tilled  farm, 
where  a  large  space  io  the  end  of  a  wagon-shed  is  called 
a  tool -room.  The  tools  are  deposited  in  the  barn,  wood- 
shed, crib,  in  the  field,  hung  in  trees,  anywhere  but  in 
the  right  place.  The  tool-room  floor  is  covered  with 
heaps  of  rusty  iron,  old  leather,  broken  harness,  frag- 
ments of  tools,  and  other  accumulations  of  forty  years  of 
farm  life.  The  old  iron  should  be  sorted  over,  and  any 
bolts,  nuts,  rings,  hooks,  etc.,  that  are  good,  maybe  put 
in  a  box  by  themselves,  and  the  rest  should  go  to  the  junk 
dealer.  There  may  be  a  few  straps  and  buckles  of  the 
old  harness  worth  saving.  If  so,  oil  the  leather  and  lay 
it  aside  ;  throw  the  rest  out  of  sight.  Put  a  light  scaf- 
fold near  the  roof-plates,  and  pile  many  small  articles 
upon  it ;  they  will  be  out  of  the  way  and  within  easy 
reach.  Make  a  drawer  in  a  bench  for  holding  small 
tools,  and  a  row  of  pigeon-holes  for  nails,  screws,  etc. 
Across  one  end  of  the  room,  in  front  of  the  plate,  fasten 


208  FARM   CONVEKIENCES. 

a  long  narrow  board  by  pegs,  so  that  a  six-inch  space  will 
be  between  the  plates  and  board.  Let  the  pegs  be  a  foot 
apart  and  stand  out  beyond  the  board  some  five  or  six 
inches,  upon  which  to  hang  long-handled  tools.  About 
four  feet  from  the  floor  make  a  similar  rack  for  shovels, 


Fig.     187.— SECTIO>'   OF   A   TOOL   KOOM. 

picks,  chains,  whippletrees,  etc.  Bring  all  the  tools  to 
this  room,  except  those  needed  every  day  in  the  barn. 
There  should  be  a  paint-pot  in  the  tool-house,  to  use  on 
a  rainy  day  for  painting  the  tools.  Figure  187  shows  a 
section  of  a  well-arranged  tool-room. 

Lay  down  this  law  to  your  man-servant  and  maid- 
servant, to  your  son  and  daughter,   to  your  borrowing 


FARM   COKVEKIEKCES. 


209 


neighbor  and  your  good  wife,  to  all  that  in  your  house 
abide,  and  to  yourself  :  ^'  That  whoever  uses  a  tool  shall, 
when  his  or  her  work  is  done,  return  the  tool  to  the 
tool-houseand  place  it  where  it  was  found." 


WATER-SPOUT  AND  STOCK-TROUGH. 

The  water-trough  for  the  stock  should  not  be  imme- 
diately under  the  pump  spout,  but  some  ten  or  twelve 
feet  distant,  a  spout  being  employed  to  convey  the  water. 
This  spout  (figure  188)  is  made  of  two  good  pieces  of  clean 
white  pine,  inch  stuff.  One  piece  is  four  inches  and  the 
other  is  three  inches  wide,  nicely  planed  and  jointed.  If 
securely  nailed,  it  will  not  leak  for  a  long  time,  but  when 
it  does,  let  it  dry,  and  then  run  hot  pitch  down  the  joint. 
The  trough  should  be  made  of  two-inch  oak,  or  pine  of 
the  same  thickness  may  do,  if  kept  well  painted,  inside 


Fig,  188. — WATER-TKOUGH. 

and  out.  Instead  of  nailing  on  the  sides  to  the  ends, 
have  the  ends  fitted  into  grooves,  and  use  rods,  with 
burrs  on  them  to  bring  the  sides  up  tightly  to  their 
places.  When  the  trough  leaks,  tighten  up  the  burrs  a 
little  with  a  wrench,  and  the  trouble  generally  ceases  for 
the  time.  Even  the  best  trough  is  by  no  means  very 
lasting,  and  its  longevity  is  increased  by  keeping  it  thor- 
oughly painted,  inside  and  out,  with  good  paint.    Where 


210  FARM   C0J5"VEi^IENCES. 

there  are  horses  that  destroy  the  edges  of  the  trough 
with  their  teeth,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  rim  it  all  around 
with  thill  iron.  The  spout,  where  it  goes  under  the 
pump,  can  have  a  strap  slipped  over  the  nozzle  of  the 
pump. 

A  DESIRABLE  MILKINa  SHED. 
{See  Frontispiece.) 
We  recently  obseryed  a  peculiarly  constructed  building 
used  as  a  milking  shed  during  the  warmer  portions  of 
the  year.  It  is  a  common  frame  structure,  thirty-five 
feet  in  lengfch  and  eighteen  feet  wide,  with  posts  eight 
feet  high.  The  sides  and  ends  are  boarded  up  and 
down  with  eight-inch  stuff,  leaving  a  space  three  inches 
wide  between  the  boards  for  ventilation,  light,  etc.  A 
row  of  common  stanchions  are  placed  along  each  side. 
A  door  is  made  at  one  end,  through  which  the  cows 
enter.  If  grain  is  fed,  it  is  placed  in  position  before  the 
cows  are  admitted.  A  small  quantity  of  salt  is  kept  on 
the  floor,  immediately  in  front  of  the  stanchions,  thus 
allowing  the  cows  to  obtain  a  supply  twice  each  day. 
This  manner  of  salting  is  an  inducement  for  the  cows  to 
enter  the  building  and  take  their  accustouied  places  ;  it 
also  tends  to  keep  them  quiet  while  milking.  This 
arrangement,  for  cleanliness,  ventilation,  etc.,  is  far 
superior  to  the  common  basement  stables,  and  is  a  great 
improvement  over  the  usual  plan  of  milking  in  the  open 
yard,  where  broken  stools,  spilled  milk,  and  irritable 
tempers  are  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception.  JSTo 
matter  how  stormy  it  may  be  w^ithout,  this  shed  always 
secures  a  dry  place,  with  comparative  quiet.  A  greater 
supply  of  milk  is  obtained  with  such  a  shed.  The  floor 
of  the  stable  portion  may  be  of  earth,  covered  with 
coarse  gravel. 


FAEM   CONVENIEi;rCES.  211 

WEAR  PLATE  FOR  HARNESS  TUGS  AND  COLLARS. 

In  the  manufacture  of  improyed  harness  trimmings, 
devices  are  employed  to  prevent,  as  much  as  possible, 
the  wear  and  breaking  of  the  tugs  where  the  buckle 
tongue  enters  them.  This  is  quite  an  important  point 
with  those  purchasing  new  harness.  The  simple  con- 
trivance, such  as  is  shown  in  figure  189,  consists  of  a 


Fig,  189. — WEAR  PLATE   FOP.   TUG. 

thin  iron  plate  a  little  narrower  than  the  tug,  and  about 
two  inches  in  length,  with  a  hole  for  the  reception  of 
the  buckle-tonguo  when  placed  between  the  tug  and  the 
buckle.  The  strain  from  the  buckle  upon  the  tug  is 
equally  distributed  over  the  entire  surface  against  which 
the  plate  rests.  A  harness  thns  equipped  will  last  many 
years  longer  than  those  not  so  provided.  There  is 
another  part  of  the  harness  that 
is  the  cause  of  much  trouble— 
mainly,  the  part  where  the  tug 
comes  in  contact  with  the  col- 
lar. The  tug  and  its  fasten- 
ings to  the  hame  soon  wear 
through  the  collar,  and  com- 
press the  latter  so  much  that 
during  heavy  pulling  the  horse's 
shoulder  is  often  pinched, 
chafed,  and  lacerated.  This 
is  worse  than  carelessness  on 
the  part  of  the  teamster,  as  the  collar  should  be  kept 
plump  afc  this  point,  by  re-filling  when  needed  ;  yet,  very 
much  of  this  trouble  may  be  avoided  by  tacking  to  the 


Fis:. 


190. — WEAR     PLATE 
FOR  HAMES. 


212 


FAEM   COi^VEKIEKCES. 


underside  of  the  hame  a  piece  of  leather,  as  shown  in 
figure  190.  It  will  be  found  not  only  to  save  the  collar, 
but  2)revent  chafing  of  the  shoulder. 


POTABLE  WATER  FENCE. 

The  water  fence,  shown  in  figure  191,  is  one  of  the 
best  we  have  ever  used,  and  those  who  live  near  or  on 
tide- water  will  find  such  an  one  very  useful.  This  fence 
is  made  usually  of  pine  ;  the  larger  pieces,  those  which 
lie  on  the  ground  and  parallel  with  the  '^run  "  of  the 
fence,  are  three  by  four-inch  pieces,  hemlock  or  pine, 
and  connected  by  three  cross-bars,  of  three  by  four-inch 
pieces,  mortised  in,  three  feet  apart.     Into  the  middle 


Fig.  191.— SECTION  OF  A  WATER  FENCE, 

of  these  three  cross-pieces  (the  upright  or  posts),  are 
securely  mortised,  while  two  common  boards  are  nailed 
underneath  the  long  pieces  to  afford  a  better  rest  for  the 
structure  when  floating  on  the  water,  or  resting  on  the 
ground.  Stout  wires  are  stretched  along  the  posts, 
which  are  four  feet  high. 


DITCH  CLEANER  AND  DEEPENER. 

Open  ditches  require  constant  attention  to  prevent 
their  being  choked  with  weeds  and  accumulations  of  silt. 


FARM   CONVENIENCES.  213 

Keeping  them  cleaned  out  with  a  hoe  is  a  difficult  and 
laborious  task,  while  drawing  a  log  down  them  is  un- 
satisfactory and  ineffective.  To  run  a  plow  along  the 
bottom  is  not  only  a  disagreeable  task,  but  frequently 
does  more  harm  than  good.  In  view  of  these  facts  we 
devised  the  simple  and  effective  implement  shown  in 
figure  192. 

The  centre-piece  is  six  by  eight-inch  oak,  eight  feet 
long,  and  shaped  as  shown  in  the  cut.     The  wings,  or 


Fig.  192.— A   CLEANER  FOR  DITCHES. 

scrapers,  are  made  of  oak,  or  other  tough  wood  ;  boards 
ten  inches  wide.  They  are  attached  to  the  centre-piece 
at  the  forward  end  by  an  inch  bolt  that  passes  through 
all  three  pieces.  They  are  connected  at  the  rear  end  by 
a  strong  cross-bar  of  hard- wood.  Twelve  or  fifteen  inches 
back  of  this  bar  the  end  of  the  le^er  is  attached  to  the 
centre-piece  by  an  eye  and  staple.  A  short  chain  is 
fastened  underneath  the  centre  of  the  cross-bar,  with  an 
eye-bolt  passing  through  it.  The  chain  is  attached  to 
the  lever  with  a  hook,  and  may  be  lengthened  or  short- 
ened as  required. 

The  implement  is  drawn  by  two  horses,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  ditch.  A  man  stands  on  the  centre-piece,  and 
handles  the  lever.  If  the  ditch  is  narrow  and  deep,  the 
rear  ends  of  the  wings  or  scrapers  will  naturally  be  forced 
upward  to  a  considerable  hight,  and  the  lever  chain 
should  be  lengthened   accordingly.     In  wide,  shallow 


214 


FAKM   CO^fVEKIEiq^CES. 


ditches,  the  cross-bar  will  nearly  rest  on  the  centre-piece, 
and  the  chain  must  be  short.  The  scrapers  are  forced 
down  hard  by  bearing  on  the  lever.  If  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  is  hard,  two  men  may  ride  on  the  implement. 
Long  weeds  catching  on  the  forward  end  must  be  re- 
moved with  a  fork.  A  strap  of  iron  is  fastened  across 
the  forward  ends  of  the  scrapers  where  the  bolt  passes 
through  to  prevent  them  from  splitting.  The  horses 
may  be  kept  the  proper  distance  apart  by  means  of  a 
light  pole  fastened  to  the  halter  rings. 


HOW  TO  BUILD   A  DAM. 


A  form  of  crib,  shown  in  figure  193,  is  built  of  logs, 
about  eight  feet  square  for  ordinary  streams.  The  bot- 
tom should  have  cross-pieces  pinned  on  the  lowest  logs. 
The  stones  that  fill  the  crib  rest  on  these  cross-pieces. 


A  CllIB  FOR  A  DAM. 


and  hold  everything  secure.  The  crib  can  be  partly  built 
on  shore,  then  launched,  and  finished  in  its  place  in  the 
dam.  All  the  logs  should  be  firmly  pinned  together. 
The  velocity  of  the  stream  will  determine  the  distance 


FARM   COKVENIENCES.  215 

between  the  cribs.     The  intervening  spaces  are  occupied 
with  logs,  firmly  fastened  in  their  places.    Stone  is  filled 


ilg.  iyi. — L,UG  -iliAME   FOK  A  DAM. 

in  between  the  logs,  and  the  bottom  is  made  water-tight 
with  brush  aAd  clay. 

Adam  without  cribs,  built  of  timbers  spliced  together, 
and  reaching  quite  across  the  stream,  is  shown  in  figure 
194.  The  frame  is  bound  together  with  tiers  of  cross-tim- 
bers about  ten  feet  apart.  The  sides  of  this  framework 
of  spliced  logs  are  slanting  and  nearly  meet  at  the  top. 
The  interior  is  filled  with  stone  and  clay,  and  jolanked 
over  tightly,  both  front  and  rear.  For  a  small  stream 
with  an  ordinary  current,  this  is  perhaps  the  cheapest 
and  most  durable  dam  made.  The  engravings  fully 
illustrate  the  construction  of  the  two  forms. 


DRIVING  HOP  AND  OTHER  POLES. 

The  usual  method  of  driving  stakes,  etc.,  is  to  strike 
them  on  the  upper  end  with  a  sledge  or  other  heavy  ar- 
ticle ;  but  in  the  case  of  hop  or  other  long  poles  this 
mode  is  impracticable.  Hop  poles  are  usually  set  by 
making  a  hole  with  an  iron  bar  and  forcing  into  it  the 


21.6 


FARM   COKVEN^IENCES. 


lower  end  of  the  pole.  Poles  and  other  long  stakes  often 
need  to  be  driven  deeply  in  the 
ground,  and  this  may  be  done  quick- 
ly, and  without  a  high  step  or  plat- 
forro,  by  using  a  device  shown  in 
figure  195.  This  consists  of  a  block 
of  tough  wood,  one  foot  in  length, 
four  or  five  inches  square  at  the  top, 
made  tapering,  as  shown,  with  the 
part  next  the  pole  slightly  hollowed 
out.  Take  a  common  trace  chain, 
wind  closely  about  the  block  and 
pole,  and  hook  it  in  position.  With 
an  axe,  sledge,  or  beetle,  strike 
heavy  blows  upon  the  block.  Each 
blow  serves  only  to  tighten  the  grip 
of  the  chain  upon  the  pole.  In  this 
way,  quite  large  poles  or  stakes  may 
be  quickly  driven  firmly  in  the  ground.  To  keep  the 
chain  from  falling  to  the  ground  when  unfastened  from 
the  pole,  it  should  pass  through  a  hole  bored  through 
the  block. 


Fig.    195. — DRIVING 
BLOCK. 


A  CONVENIENT   GRAIN  BOX. 

The  box  here  represented,  figure  196,  is  at  the  foot, 
and  just  outside  of  the  bin.  It  serves  as  a  step  when 
emptying  grain  into  the  bin.  The  front  side  of  it  is 
formed  by  two  pieces  of  boards,  hung  on  hinges  at  the 
outside  corners,  and  fastened  at  the  middle  with  a  hook 
and  staple.  The  contrivance  opens  into  the  bin  at  the 
back,  thus  allowing  the  grain  to  flow  into  it.  When  a 
quantity  of  grain  is  to  be  taken  from  the  bin,  the  cover 
is  fastened  up,  the  front  pieces  swung  round,  giving  a 
chance  to  use  the  scoop-shovel  to  fill  bags  or  measures. 


FARM   COKVEl^IEKCES. 


217 


The  box  is  a  foot  deep  and  sixteen  inches  wide.  Its 
length  is  the  same  as  the  width  of  the  bin.  The  first 
four  boards,  forming  the  front  of  the  bin,  may  be  made 
stationary  by  this  arrangement,  as,  at  that  convenient 
hight,  bags  may  be  emptied  over  by  using  the  box  as  a 
step.  The  cost  of  this  is  about  seventy-five  cents.  An 
improvement  has  the  front  piece  and  ends  nailed  together. 


Fis:.  190. 


GRAIN  BOXES. 


Fi2:.  197. 


and  the  whole  fastened  to  the  bin-posts  by  hooks  and 
staples  from  the  end-pieces,  as  shown  in  figure  197. 
Then  the  whole  could  be  removed  by  unhooking  the  fast- 
enings, and  the  cover  could  be  let  down,  to  form  the 
lower  board  on  the  front  of  the  bin,  if  desired. 


A  ROAD-SCRAPER. 

A  road-scraper  is  shown  in  figure  198,  which  consists 
of  a  heavy  plank  or  hewn  log,  of  oak  or  any  other  hard 
timber,  six  feet  long,  six  inches  in  thickness,  and  ten 
inches  wide.  A  scantling,  d,  two  by  four  inches  thick 
and  six  feet  long,  and  the  brace,  c,  are  secured  to  the 
log,  a,  by  a  strong  bolt.  The  edge  of  the  scraper  is 
made  of  an  old  drag-saw,  and  secured  by  rod-iron 
nails.  The  scantling  serves  as  a  reach,  and  is  attached 
to  the  front  part  of  a  heavy  wagon,  when  in  use.  When 
10 


218  FAKM   COJS'VEiq^IEKCES. 

the  road  is  very  hard,  it  becomes  necessary  sometimes 
for  the  driver  to  stand  on  the  scraper,  to  make  it  take 
better  hold.     The  scraper   should  be  shaped  about  as 


Fis:  198.— A   ROAD-SCRAPER. 


shown  at  ^,  in  the  engraving,  so  as  to  make  it  run  steady, 
and  cause  the  loose  dirt  to  slide  to  one  side,  and  leave 
it  in  the  middle  of  the  road. 


AIDS  IN  DIGGING  ROOT   CROPS. 

Figure  199  shows  a  carrot  and  sugar  beet  lifter,  made 
in  the  following  manner  :  Take  a  piece  of  hard  wood, 
two  and  a  half  by  three  inches,  and  six  feet  long,  for  the 
main  piece,  a,  into  which  make  a  mortise  two  feet  from 


Fig.  199.— A  ROOT   LIFTER. 

the  wheel  end,  to  receive  the  lifting  foot  (figure  200) ; 
attach  two  handles,  l,  h,  at  one  end,  and  a  wheel,  c,  at 
the  other.  This  wheel  can  be  set  high  or  low  as  desired, 
by  the  set  screw,  d,  in  the  clevis,  e.  Figure  201  shows 
the  lifting  ^'foot"  separate  from  the  machine.  This  is 
made  of  flat  iron  or  steel,  five-eighths  inch  thick  and 


FARM   COKVEKIEKCES.  219 

three  inches  wide,  with  a  steel  point  and  a  small  wing 
at  the  bottom.  It  is  in  the  curved  form  seen  in  the 
engraving.  The  roots  are  first  topped  with  a  sharp  hoe 
or  sickle,  two  rows  of  tops  being  thrown  into  one,  which 
leaves  one  side  of  the  rows  clear  for  the  lifter.  The 
horse  walks  between  the  rows  and  the  foot  of  the  imple- 
ment enters  the  ground  at  the  side  of  the  roots  in  a 


Fig.  200.  Fig.  201. 

slanting  direction,  as  shown  in  figure  201,  lifting  the 
roots  so  they  may  be  rapidly  picked  up.  The  imple- 
ment is  very  easily  made  to  run  dee|)  or  shallow,  by 
simply  changing  the  wheel  and  lifting,  or  pressing  down 
upon  the  handles.  A  "foot,"  made  in  the  form  of 
figure  200,  may  be  placed  in  the  centre  arm  of  a  com- 
mon horse  hoe  with  sides  closed,  and  used  as  above. 


THE  WOOD-LOT  IN  WINTER. 

A  few  acres  in  trees  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  a 
farmer's  possessions  ;  yet  no  part  of  the  farm  is  so  mis- 
treated, if  not  utterly  neglected.  Aside  from  the  fuel 
the  wood-lot  affords,  it  is  both  a  great  saving  and  a 
great  convenience  to  have  a  stick  of  ash,  oak,  or  hickory 
on  hand,  to  repair  a  break-down,  or  to  build  some  kind 
of  rack  or  other  appliance.  As  a  general  thing,  such 
timber  as  one  needs  is  cut  off,  without  any  reference  to 


220  FARM   CO:^ENIEN'CES. 

what  is  left.  By  a  proper  selection  in  cutting,  and  the 
encouragement  of  the  young  growth,  the  wood-lot  will 
not  only  continue  to  give  a  supply  indefinitely,  but  even 
increase  in  yalue.  A  beginning,  and  often  the  whole,  of 
the  improvement  of  the  wood-lot,  is  usually  to  send  a 
man  or  two  to  ^^ brush  it,"  or  clean  away  the  under- 
brush. This  is  a  great  mistake.  The  average  laborer 
will  cut  down  everything ;  fine  young  trees,  five  or  six 
years  old,  go  into  the  heap  with  young  poplars  and  the 
soft  underbrush.  The  first  point  in  the  management  of 
the  wood-lot  is,  to  provide  for  its  continuance,  and  gen- 
erally there  are  young  trees  in  abundance,  ready  to  grow 
on  as  soon  as  given  a  chance.  In  the  bracing  winter 
mornings  one  can  find  no  more  genial  and  profitable 
exercise  than  in  the  wood-lot.  Hard-wooded  and  use- 
ful young  trees  should  not  have  to  struggle  with  a  mass 
of  useless  brush,  and  a  judicious  clearing  up  may  well 
be  the  first  step.  In  timber,  we  need  a  clean,  straight, 
gradually  tapering  and  thoroughly  sound  trunk.  In 
the  dense  forest,  nature  provides  this.  The  trees  are 
so  crowded  that  they  grow  only  at  the  upper  branches. 
The  lower  brunches,  while  young,  are  starved  out  and 
soon  perish,  the  wounds  soon  healing  over  are  out  of 
sight.  In  our  open  wood-lots,  the  trees  have  often  large 
heads,  and  the  growth  that  should  be  forming  the  trunk 
is  scattered  over  a  great  number  of  useless  branches. 
Only  general  rules  can  be  given  in  pruning  neglected 
timber  trees  ;  the  naked  trunk,  according  to  age,  should 
be  from  one-third  to  one-haK  the  whole  hight  of  the 
tree  ;  hence  some  of  the  lower  branches  may  need  to  be 
cut  away.  All  the  branches  are  to  be  so  shortened  in  or 
cut  back  as  to  give  the  head  an  oval  or  egg-shaped  out- 
line. This  may  sometimes  remove  half  of  the  head,  but 
its  good  effects  will  be  seen  in  a  few  years.  In  removing 
branches,  leave  no  projecting  stub  on  the  timber,  and 


FARM   COiTVENIEKCES. 


221 


coyer  all  large  wounds  with  coal-tar.     Whosoever  works 
in  this  manner  thoughtfully  cannot  go  far  astray. 


SWINGING-STALL  FRONTS. 

The  value  of  swinging-stall  fronts  is  appreciated  by 
those  who  have  used  them.  They  prevent  the  animals 
from  putting  their  heads  out  into  the  alleys,  and 
endangering  themselves  thereby.  The  ^^cribber/'  or 
"windsucker,"  has  been  made  such  by  want  of  a  con- 
trivance like  the  one  shown  in  figure  202.  Anyone 
with  a  moderate  knowledge  of  the  use  of  tools  can  put 
it  up,  as  the  engraving   shows  how  it  is  made ;  a,  a, 


Fig.    202.— FRONT    OF   STALLS. 

being  straps  to  fasten  the  ''fronts  "  down  into  place  when 
they  are  not  raised  to  feed  the  stock.  Inch  stuff  consti- 
tutes the  material.  The  cleats  to  which  the  strips  are 
attached  should  be  four  inches  wide,  with  the  sharp,  ex- 
posed edges  taken  off  with  a  plane.  The  strips  should  be 
from  two  to  two  and  a  half  inches  wide,  and  attached  with 
screws  or  wrought  nails.  The  hinges  can  either  be  of 
wrought  iron  or  of  heavy  leather.  If  more  durable 
fronts  are  desired,  oak,  or  yellow  pine  can  be  used, 
though  it  is  much  more  expensive.  Unplaned  lumber 
will  answer,  but  to  make  a  neat,  workmanlike  job  had 
better  use  planed  lumber. 


232  FARM   CONYENIEIirCES. 

SAVE  ALL  CORN    FODDER    EVERYWHERE. 

The  profits  of  farming,  as  in  other  business,  is  the 
margin  between  receipts  and  expenditures.  The  receipts 
are  largely  augmented  by  saving  wastes ;  these  wastes  in 
farming  are  enormous  in  the  aggregate.  The  losses  in 
this  direction,  that  might  be  saved,  would  make  the  bus- 
iness very  profitable,  where  it  is  now  barely  paying,  or 
not  doing  that.  Take  corn  stalks,  for  example.  The 
leaves  and  a  portion  of  the  stems  that  produce  each  bushel 
of  corn  have  a  certain  amount  of  nutriment  that  would 
support  and  increase  the  weight  and  growth  of  animals. 
Yet  of  our  great  corn  crop,  seventeen  hundred  to  two 
thousand  million  bushels  annually,  only  a  very  small  part 
of  the  fodder  is  turned  to  much  account.  At  the  very 
lowest  estimate,  the  stalks  yielding  one  bushel  of  corn 
are  on  the  average  worth  ten  cents  for  feed,  even  includ- 
ing the  great  corn  regions — a  total  of  two  hundred  mil- 
lion dollars.  At  the  South,  generally,  little  value  is 
attached  to  corn  stalks  as  fodder.  At  the  West,  many 
farmers  let  their  cattle  roam  in  the  fields,  pick  off  some 
leaves,  eat  a  little  of  the  stalk,  and  tramj)le  the  rest 
down  ;  they  pack  the  earth  so  much  in  trampling  on  it, 
that  the  damage  thus  done  to  many  fields  surpasses  the 
value  of  the  food  obtained. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  a  corn  stalk,  except  a  very  little 
of  the  thin,  hard  outside  coating,  affords  nutritious  fod- 
der, if  it  is  cut  at  the  proper  time,  is  w^ell  cured  and  ju- 
diciously fed.  It  needs  to  be  cut  when  not  so  green  as 
to  mould  in  the  shock,  but  not  so  ripe  as  to  lose  all  its 
succulence  and  become  w^oody.  Experience  and  obser- 
vation will  generally  indicate  to  every  one  the  proper 
time  of  cutting  it. 

In  shocking  corn,  the  stalks  should  be  kept  straight  and 
parallel .     The  shocks  should  be  large  enough  to  not' have 


FARM    CONVENIENCES.  223 

too  many  stalks  exposed  to  the  weather,  yet  small  enough 
to  dry  and  cure  through.  For  somewhat  heavy  corn, 
twelve  hills  square  (one  hundred  and  forty- four  hills),  is 
abundant  for  one  shock.  A  good  mode  of  shocking  is 
this  :  When  the  shocks  are  set  nearly  perpendicular, 
draw  the  tops  together  very  firmly  with  a  rope,  and  tie 
temporarily — two  men  working  together.  Bind  with 
straw  or  with  stalks.  For  the  latter  choose  tough,  nearly 
ripe,  long,  slender  stalks.  ^^ Bend- break"  the  top  with 
the  thumb  and  finger  every  two  or  three  inches.  Thrust 
the  butt  end  into  the  shock  and  towards  the  centre  nearly 
two  feet,  and  carefully  bend-break  it  at  the  surface  to  a 
right  angle.  Insert  a  similar  top-broken  stalk  two  feet 
distant ;  bring  the  top  of  the  first  one  firmly  around  the 
shock,  bend  it  around  the  second  stalk  close  to  the  shock, 
and  then  bend  the  second  stalk  aiK)und  and  over  a  third 
one  ;  and  so  on,  using  as  many  stalks  as  required  by  size 
of  shock  and  length  of  binders.  Bring  the  end  of  the 
last  one  over  the  bend  in  the  first,  and  tuck  it  under  the 
binder  into  a  loop,  into  which  insert  a  stalk  stub,  push- 
ing it  into  the  shock  to  hold  the  loop.  All  this  is  more 
quickly  done  than  described. 


IMPROVED  BRUSH  RAKE. 

One  of  the  most  disagreeable  tasks  connected  with  a 
hedge  fence  is  gathering  and  burning  the  annual  or  semi- 
annual trimmings.  It  is  generally  done  with  pitchforks, 
and  often  causes  pain.  To  have  a  long  shoot,  covered 
with  thorns  an  inch  long,  spring  out  from  a  roll  of 
brush  and  hit  one  square  across  the  countenance,  is  ex- 
asperating in  the  extreme.  To  avoid  this  danger,  many 
expedients  are  resorted  to.  Among  the  best  of  these 
is  a  long,  strong  rail,  with  a  horse  hitched  to  each  end 


224  FARM   CONVEXIE]SrCES. 

by  means  of  ropes  or  chains  eight  or  ten  feet  long.  A 
boy  is  placed  on  each  horse,  and  two  men  with  heavy 
sticks,  eight  or  ten  feet  long,  follow.  The  horses  walk 
on  each  side  of  the  row  of  brush,  and  the  men  place 
one  end  of  their  sticks  just  in  front  of  the  rail,  and  hold 
them  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees,  to  pre- 
vent the  brush  from  sliding  over  it.  When  a  load  'is 
gathered,  the  horses  are  turned  about,  and  the  rail  with- 
drawn from  the  brush. 

The  device  shown  in  figure  203  is  an  improvement 
on  this  method.  A  good,  heavy  pole,  eight  to  twelve 
feet  long,  has  four  or  five  two-inch  hard-wood  teeth  set 
in  it,  as  seen  in  the  cut.     These  teeth  may  be  twelve  to 


¥ig.  203.— A   BRUSH    RAKE. 

twenty  inches  long,  and  slide  on  the  ground  in  front  of 
the  pole  similar  to  those  of  a  revolving  hay  rake.  The 
handles  are  six  to  eight  feet  long,  of  ash  or  other  tough 
wood,  and  fit  loosely  into  the  holes  in  the  pole.  Two 
horses  are  employed,  one  at  each  end  of  the  rake.  One 
man  holds  the  handles,  and  raises  or  lowers  the  teeth  as 
necessary.  When  a  load  is  gathered,  the  handles  are 
withdrawn,  the  ends  of  the  teeth  strike  the  ground, 
throw  the  pole  up,  and  it  passes  over  the  heap.  After 
a  little  practice,  a  man  can  handle  this  rake  so  as  to 
gather  up  either  large  or  small  brush  perfectly  clean, 
and  do  it  rapidly. 


FARM   COKVENIE]S"CES.  225 


DIGGING  MUCK  AND  PEAT. 

A  dry  fall  often  furnislies  the  best  time  in  the  whole 
circle  of  the  year  for  procuring  the  needed  supply  of 
muck  or  peat  for  absorbents  in  the  sty  and  stable.  The 
use  of  this  article  is  on  the  increase  among  those  farm- 
ers who  have  faithfully  tried  it,  and  are  seeking  to  make 
the  most  of  home  resources  of  fertilizers.  Some  who 
have  used  muck  only  in  the  raw  state  have  probably 
abandoned  it,  but  this  does  not  impeach  its  value.  All 
that  is  claimed  for  it  has  been  proved  substantially  cor- 
rect, by  the  practice  of  thousands  of  our  most  intelligent 
cultivators^  in  all  parts  of  the  land.  There  is  consider- 
able difference  in  its  value,  depending  somewhat  upon 
the  vegetable  growth  of  which  it  is  mainly  composed, 
but  almost  any  of  it,  if  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  a  year 
before  use,  will  pay  abundantly  for  digging.  This  dried 
article,  kept  under  cover,  should  be  constantly  in  the 
stables,  in  the  sties  and  sinks,  and  in  the  compost  heap. 
So  long  as  there  is  the  smell  of  ammonia  from  the  stable 
or  manure  heap,  you  need  more  of  this  absorbent.  Hun- 
dreds of  dollars  are  wasted  on  many  a  farm,  every  year, 
for  want  of  some  absorbent  to  catch  this  volatile  and  most 
valuable  constituent  of  manure.  In  some  sections  it  is 
abundant  within  a  short  distance  of  the  barn.  The  most 
difficult  part  of  supplying  this  absorbent  is  the  digging. 
In  a  dry  fall  the  water  has  evaporated  from  the  swamps, 
so  that  the  peat  bed  can  be  excavated  to  a  depth  of  four 
or  five  feet  at  a  single  digging.  Oftentimes  ditching,  for 
the  sake  of  surface  draining,  will  give  the  needed  supply 
of  absorbents.  It  will  prove  a  safe  investment  to  hire 
extra  labor  for  the  enlargement  of  the  muck  bank.  It 
helps  right  where  our  farming  is  weakest — in  the  manu- 
facture of  fertilizers.  It  is  a  good  article  not  only  for 
compost  with  stable  manure,  but  to  mix  with  other  fertil- 
10" 


226  FARM  CONVENIENCES. 

izers,  as  butcher's  offal,  night  soil,  kainite,  ashes,  bone 
dust,  fish,  rock  weed,  kelp,  and  other  marine  products. 
Dig  the  muck  when  most  convenient  and  have  it  ready. 


A  CLEANER  FOR  HORSES'  HOOFS. 

The  engraving  herewith  given  shows  a  simple  and 
convenient  implement  for  removing  stones  and  other 
substances  from  between  the  frog  and  the  ends  of  a 
horse's  shoe.  Its  value  for  this  and  other  purposes  will 
be  quickly  appreciated  by  every  driver  and  horse  owner. 
When  not  in  use,  the  hook  is  turned  within  the  loop  of 


Fig.  20i.— A   HOOF-CLEANER. 

the  handle,  and  the  whole  is  easily  carried  in  the  pocket. 
The  engraving  shows  the  implement  open,  two  and  one- 
half  times  reduced  in  size.  If  horsemen  keep  this 
cleaner  within  easy  reach,  it  will  often  serve  a  good 
turn,  and  be  of  greater  value  than  a  pocket  corkscrew. 


COLD  WEATHER  SHELTER  FOR  STOCK  PROFITABLE. 

Not  one  farmer  in  a  hundred  understands  the  impor- 
tance of  shelter  for  stock.  This  has  much  to  do  with 
success  or  failure  of  tens  of  thousands  of  farmers.  Ani- 
mals fairly  sheltered  consume  from  ten  to  forty  per  cent, 
less  food,  increase  more  in  weight,  come  out  in  spring  far 
healthier  ;  and  working  and  milk-producing  animals  are 
much  better  able  to  render  effective  service.     The  loss 


FAEM   COKVEN'IEKCES.  227 

of  one  or  more  working  horses  or  oxen,  or  of  cows,  or 
other  farm  stock,  is  often  a  staggering  blow  to  those 
scarcely  able  to  make  the  ends  of  the  year  meet,  and  the 
large  majority  of  such  losses  of  animals  are  traceable  to 
diseases  due,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  improper  protec- 
tion in  autumn,  winter,  or  spring.  Of  the  food  eaten, 
all  the  animals  use  up  a  large  percentage  in  producing 
the  natural  heat  of  the  body  at  all  seasons,  and  heat 
enough  to  keep  up  ninety-eight  degrees  all  through  the 
body  is  absolutely  essential.  Only  what  food  remains 
after  this  heat  is  proyided  in  the  system  can  go  to  increase 
growth  and  strength,  and  to  the  manufacture  of  milk 
in  cows  and  of  eggs  in  fowls.  When  heat  escapes  rap- 
idly from  the  surface,  as  in  cold  weather,  more  heat  must 
be  produced  within,  and  more  food  be  thus  consumed. 
In  nature  this  is  partly  guarded  against  by  thicker  hair 
or  fur  in  winter. 

Any  thinking  man  will  see  that  an  animal  either  re- 
quires less  food,  or  has  more  left  for  other  uses,  if  it  is 
protected  artificially  against  winds  that  carry  off  heat 
rapidly,  and  against  storms  that  promote  the  loss  of  heat 
by  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  surface  of  the  body. 
A  dozen  cows,  for  example,  will  consume  from  two  to 
six  tons  more  of  hay  if  left  exposed  from  October  to 
April,  than  if  warmly  sheltered,  and  in  the  latter  case 
they  will  be  in  much  better  health  and  vigor,  and  give 
much  more  milk.  Other  cattle,  horses,  sheep  and  swine 
will  be  equally  benefited  by  careful  protection. 


GOOD  STONE  TROUGHS  OR  TANKS. 

Figure  205  shows  an  unpatented  stone  water  tank,  or 
trough,  neat,  effective,  and  readily  constructed  by  almost 
any  one.     These  troughs  may  be  of  any  length,  width 


228  FAI13I   COKVEJflEl^CES 

and  depth  desired,  according  to  their  position,  use,  and 
the  size  of  stones  available.  Here  are  the  figures  of  the 
one  shown  :  The  two  side-pieces  are  flagging  stones, 
six  feet  long  and  twenty-seven  inches  wide.  The  bottom- 
piece  is  four  feet  ten  inches  long,  two  feet  wide  ;  and  the 
two  end-pieces,  two  feet  long,  twenty  inches  wide,  or  high. 
These  stones  were  all  a  little  under  two  inches  thick.  Five 
rods,  of  three-eighths  inch  round  iron,  have  a  flat  head  on 
one  end,  and  screw  and  nut  on  the  other  ;  or  there  may 


Fig.  20~). — A   STONE    TROUGH. 

be  simply  a  screw  and  nut  on  each  end  ;  they  must  not 
extend  out  to  be  in  the  way.  Five  holes  are  bored  or 
drilled  through  each  side-piece,  which  is  easily  done  with 
brace  and  bit  in  ordinary  stone.  The  middle  hole  is  four 
to  five  inches  above  the  bottom  edge,  so  that  the  rod 
through  it  will  fit  under  and  partially  support  the  bot- 
tom stone.  The  end  rods  are  about  four  inches  from 
the  ends  of  the  side-pieces,  and  stand  clear  of  the  end 
stones  in  this  case  so  that  the  dipper  handles  hang  upon 
them;  but  they  may  run  against  the  end  stones.  When 
setting  up,  the  stones  being  placed  nearly  in  position, 
newly-mixed  hydraulic  cement  is  placed  in  all  the  joints, 
and  the  rods  screwed  up  firmly.  The  mortar  squeezed 
out  in  tightening  the  rods  is  smoothed  ofl  neatly,  so  that 
when  hardened  the  whole  is  almost  compact  solid  stone- 
work— if  good  water-lime  be  used.  Almost  any  flat 
stones  will  answer,  if  the  edges  of  the  bottom  and  end- 
pieces  be  dressed  and  a  somewhat  smooth  groove  be  cut 


FAKM   COi^VEKIENCES.  229 

in  the  side-pieces  for  them  to  fit  into  or  against.  The 
mortar  will  fill  up  any  irregularities.  A  little  grooving 
will  give  a  better  support  to  the  bottom-piece  and  the 
ends  than  the  simple  cement  and  small  rods.  It  will  be 
noted  that  the  side-pieces  extend  down,  like  sleigh  run- 
ners, leaving  an  open  space  below.  A  hole  can  be  drilled 
in  a  lower  edge  to  let  out  the  water  in  hard  freezing 
weather;,  and  be  stopped  with  a  wooden  plug.  Such 
tanks  will  keep  water  purer  than  wood,  and  last  a  cen- 
tury or  longer,  if  not  allowed  to  be  broken  by  freezing. 
Any  leakage  can  be  quickly  stopped  by  draining  off  the 
water  and  applying  a  little  cement  mortar  where  needed. 
When  flagging  or  other  flat  stones  are  plentiful,  the 
work  and  cost  would  be  little,  if  any,  more  than  for 
wooden  tanks.  They  can  be  set  in  the  ground  if  de- 
sired. The  iron  rods  need  painting,  or  covering  with 
asphalt,  to  prevent  rusting. 


ARTIFICIAL  FEEDING  OF   LAMBS. 

It  frequently  happens  that  artificial  feeding  of  lambs 
is  necessary,  and  to  do  it  successfully  good  judgment  is 
required.  The  point  is  to  promote  a  healthy  and  rapid 
growth,  and  not  allow  the  lambs  to  scour.  The  milk  of 
some  cows,  especially  Jerseys,  is  too  rich,  and  should  be 
diluted  with  a  little  warm  water.  Farrow  cows'  milk, 
alone,  is  not  a  good  feed,  since  it  frequently  causes  con- 
stipation. It  may  be  given  by  adding  a  little  cane  mo- 
lasses. Milk,  when  fed,  should  be  at  about  its  natural 
temperature,  and  not  scalded.  Lambs,  and  especially 
'^pet"  lambs,  are  often  '^^  killed  with  kindness."  Feed 
only  about  a  gill  to  a  half  pint  at  first.  After  the  lamb 
has  become  accustomed  to  the  milk,  it  may  be  fed  to  the 
extent  of  its  appetite.  When  old  enough,  feed  a  little 
flax  seed  and  oats,  or  oil-meal  if  early  fattening  is  desired. 


230 


FARM  CONVENIENCES. 


There  are  various  methods  of  feeding  young  lambs  arti- 
ficially. A  satisfactory  way  is  to  use  a  one-quart  kerosene 
oil  can.  with  the  spout  fixed  so  as  to  attach  a  nipple  ;  the 
milk  flows  more  freely  from  this  than  from  a  bottle,  on 
account  of  the  yent.  Let  ewes  and  lambs  have  clean, 
well-ventilated  apartments.  When  the  weather  is  mild 
and  warm  turn  them  out  into  the  yard.  If  it  is  not  con- 
venient to  let  the  ewes  out,  arrange  partitions  and  pens, 
so  that  the  lambs  may  enjoy  the  outside  air  and  sun- 
light. 


A  CONVENIENT  BAILED  BOX. 

The  common  box  with  a  bail,  or  handle,  is  a  useful 
farm  appliance ;  it  answers  the  purpose  of  a  basket,  is 
much  more  durable,  and  a  great  deal  cheaper.  Instead 
of  a  flat  bail,  we  would  suggest,  for  heavy  work,  a  green 
hickory  or  other  tough  stick,  to  be  chamfered  off  where 
it  is  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  box,  the  portion  for  the 


Fig.  206.— A  BAILED   BOX. 

hand  being,  of  course,  left  round.  It  will  be  found  use- 
ful to  have  these  boxes  of  a  definite  size,  to  hold  a  half- 
bushel  or  a  bushel.  A  legal  bushel  is  two  thousand  one 
hundred  and  fifty  (and  a  fraction)  cubic  inches.  A  box 
may  be  made  of  this  capacity  of  any  desired  shape. 
Ends  a  foot  square,  and  side-pieces  and  the    bottom 


FAEM  COl^VEKIEKCES.  231 

eighteen  and  a  half-inches  long,  will  make  a  bushel  box. 
If  desired  narrower,  make  the  ends  eight  inches  high  and 
fourteen  inches  wide,  with  the  sides  and  bottom  two  feet 
long.  Such  a  box,  shown  in  figure  206,  holds  a  yery  lit- 
tle more  than  an  even  bushel.     It  is  inexpensive. 


SAWDUST  FOR  BEDDING. 

We  have  tried  for  two  years  dry  sawdust  in  the  cows' 
stable,  and  on  the  whole  like  it  better  than  any  bedding 
we  have  ever  tried.  It  makes  a  more  comfortable  bed, 
completely  absorbs  the  urine,  and  the  cow  is  kept  clean 
with  less  labor  than  when  any  other  is  used.  The  ob- 
jection to  salt-marsh  sods,  dried,  or  to  headlands,  and 
dry  muck,  is  that  they  soil  the  cow,  and  make  it  neces- 
sary to  wash  the  bag  before  milking.  Straw,  of  all  sorts, 
soon  becomes  foul,  and,  without  more  care  than  the  ordi- 
nary hired  man  is  likely  to  bestow,  soils  the  cow's  bag 
also.  Dry  sawdust  is  clean,  and  makes  a  soft,  spongy 
bed,  and  is  an  excellent  absorbent.  The  bag  is  kept 
clean  with  the  aid  of  a  coarse  brush  without  washing. 
A  charge  of  fifteen  bushels  in  a  common  box-stall,  or 
cow  stable,  will  last  a  month,  if  the  manure,  dropped 
upon  the  surface,  is  removed  daily.  The  porons  nature 
of  the  material  admits  of  perfect  drainage,  and  of  rapid 
evaporation,  of  the  liquid  part  of  the  manure.  The  saw- 
dust is  not  so  iDerfect  an  absorbent  of  ammonia  as  muck, 
but  it  is  a  much  better  one  than  straw,  that  needs  to  be 
dried  daily,  in  the  sun  and  wind,  to  keep  it  in  comfort- 
able condition  for  the  animals.  In  the  vicinity  of  saw 
and  shingle  mills,  and  of  ship-yards,  the  sawdust  accu- 
mulates rapidly,  and  is  a  troublesome  waste  that  mill- 
owners  are  glad  to  be  rid  of.  It  can  be  had  for  the  cart- 
ing. But  even  where  it  is  sold  at  one  or  two  cents  a 
bushel,  a  common  price,  it  makes  a  very  cheap  and  sub- 


232 


FARM   COI^VEN"IEKCES. 


stantial  bedding.  The  saturated  sawdust  makes  an  ex- 
cellent manure,  and  is  so  fine  that  it  can  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  drills.  It  is  valuable  to  loosen  compact  clay 
soils,  and  will  help  to  retain  moisture  on  thin,  sandy  and 
gravelly  soils.  There  is  a  choice  in  the  varieties  of  saw- 
dust for  manure,  but  not  much  for  bedding.  The  hard 
woods  make  a  much  better  fertilizer  than  the  resinous 
timber.  To  keep  a  milch  cow  in  clean,  comfortable 
condition,  we  have  not  found  its  equal. 


A  CHEAP  ENSILAGE  CART. 

The  adoption  by  many  farmers  of  the  silo  method  of 
preserving  fodder,  has  made  it  necessary  to  change  the 
manner  of  feeding  live  stock.  When  the  ensilage  is  re- 
moved twenty  feet  or  more  from  the  silo  to  the  feeding 
rack,  it  is  best  to  have  some  means  of  conveying  it  in 


Fig.    207.— AN  ENSILAGE   CART. 

quantities  of  from  one  to  two  hundred  pounds  at  a  time. 
This  can  be  done  cheaply  and  quickly  by  a  small  hand- 
cart, one  of  which  any  farmer  having  the  tools  can  make 
in  half  a  day.  A  good  form  of  ensilage  cart  is  shown  in 
figure  207,  and  is  simply  a  box  eighteen  inches  wide. 


FAKM   CONVEKIEKCES.  233 

three  feet  long,  and  two  and  a  half  feet  in  hight.  A 
wooden  axle,  of  some  tough  fibre,  is  nailed  to  the  bottom, 
ten  inches  from  the  end,  and  wheels  from  one  to  two 
feet  in  diameter  are  placed  upon  the  axle.  Suitable 
wheels  can  be  made  from  planks,  with  cleats  nailed  on 
to  keep  them  from  splitting.  Handles  and  legs  are  at- 
tached as  shown  in  the  engraving.  The  axle  being  near 
the  centre,  throws  nearly  the  whole  weight  of  the  load 
ujDon  it  while  being  moved.  It  will  be  found  easier  to 
handle  than  a  barrow,  and  not  so  liable  to  upset  when 
unequally  loaded.  It  is  a  cheap  arrangement,  and  may 
be  used  for  various  other  purposes  as  well  as  for  moving 
ensilage. 


MILKING  AND  MILKlNa  TIME. 

Any  one  who  has  had  to  do  with  dairy  farming  knows 
that  there  are  a  great  many  poor  milkers,  against  a  few 
who  understand  and  practice  the  proper  method  of  re- 
moving the  milk  from  a  cow.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  some  persons  can  obtain  more  milk  from  a  cow 
with  greater  ease  and  in  quicker  time  than  others.  In 
the  first  place,  there  must  be  an  air  and  spirit  of  gentle- 
ness about  the  milker,  which  the  cow  is  quick  to  com- 
prehend and  appreciate.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a 
cow,  and  especially  a  nervous  one,  will  have  that  easy, 
quiet  condition  so  necessary  to  insure  an  unrestrained 
flow  of  milk,  when  she  is  approached  in  a  rough  way, 
and  has  a  person  at  her  teats  that  she  justly  dislikes. 
There  must  be  a  kindness  of  treatment  which  begets  a 
confidence  before  the  cow  will  do  her  best  at  the  pail. 
She  should  know  that  the  milker  comes  not  as  a  thief  to 
rob  her,  but  simply  to  relieve  her  of  her  burden,  and  do 
it  in  the  quickest,  quietest,  and  kindest  way  possible. 
The  next  point  in  proper  milking  is  cleanliness  :  and  it 


334  TAKM   COKYEiflEI^CES. 

is  of  the  greatest  importance  if  first-class  milk  and  but- 
ter are  the  ends  to  be  gained  in  keeping  cows.  No  sub- 
stance is  so  easily  tainted  and  spoiled  as  milk  ;  it  is  par- 
ticularly sensitive  to  bad  odors  or  dirt  of  any  kind,  and 
unless  the  proper  neatness  is  obseryed  in  the  milking, 
the  products  of  the  dairy  will  be  faulty  and  second-class. 
Those  persons  who  can  and  will  practice  cleanliness  at 
the  cow,  are  the  only  ones  who  should  do  the  milking. 
It  matters  not  how  much  care  is  taken  to  be  neat  in  all 
the  operations  of  the  dairy,  if  the  milk  is  made  filthy  at 
the  start ;  no  strainer  will  take  out  the  bad  flayor. 
Three  all-essential  points  are  to  be  strictly  obseryed  in 
milking :  kindness,  quickness,  and  neatness.  Aside 
from  these  three  is  the  matter  of  the  time  of  milking. 
It  should  be  done  at  the  same  hour  each  and  every  day, 
Sundays  not  excepted.  It  is  both  cruel  and  unprofitable 
to  keep  the  cows  with  their  udders  distended  and  aching 
an  hour  over  their  time.  We  will  add  another  ness  to 
the  essentials  already  given,  namely:  promptness. 


A  REVOLVING  SHEEP  HURDLE, 

An  easily  moved  feeding  liurdle  is  shown  in  figure  208. 
It  consists  of  a  stout  pole  or  scantling  of  an}"  convenient 
length,  bored  with  two  series  of  holes,  alternating  in 
nearly  opposite  directions,  and  twelve  inches  apart. 
Small  poles  five  or  six  feet  long  are  so  placed  in  the  holes 
that  each  adjoining  pair  makes  the  form  of  the  letter  X. 
These  hurdles  are  arranged  in  a  row  across  the  field,  and 
the  sheep  feed  through  the  spaces  between  the  slanting 
poles.  The  hurdles  are  moved  forward  by  revolving 
them,  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  By  using  two  rows  of 
these  hurdles,  sheep  may  be  kept  on  a  narrow  strip  of 
land,  and  given  a  fresh  pasture  daily  by  advancing  the 


FARM   CONYEKIEKCES. 


235 


lines  of  hurdles.     This  method  of  feeding  off  a  forage 
crop  is  one  of  the  most  effective  and  inexpensive  for  en- 


Fig.   208.— A  REVOLVING  HURDLE  FENCE. 

riching  worn-out  land,  especially  if  a  daily  ration  of 
grain  oi  oil-cake  is  given  to  the  sheep. 


LIGHTS  IN  THE  BARN, 

It  is  estimated  that  nine-tenths  of  all  fires  are  caused 
by  carelessness.  Winter  is  the  season  when  the  lantern 
is  frequently  used  in  the  barn,  and  we  give  a  word  of 
caution.  Never  light  a  lamp  or  lantern  of  any  kind  in 
the  barn.  Smokers  may  include  their  pipes  and  cigars 
in  the  above.  The  lantern  should  be  lighted  in  the  house 
or  some  out-building  where  no  combustibles  are  stored. 
A  lantern  which  does  not  burn  well  should  never  be 
put  in  order  in  the  hay-mow.  There  is  a  great  tempta- 
tion to  strike  a  match  and  re-light  an  extinguished  lan- 
tern, wherever  it  may  be.     It  is  best  to  even  feel  one's 


236 


FARM   COKVEKIEN^CES. 


way  out  to  a  safe  place,  than  to  run  any  risks.  If  the 
light  is  not  kept  in  the  hand,  it  should  be  hung  up. 
Provide  hooks  in  the  yarious  rooms  where  the  lights  are 
used.  A  wire  running  the  whole  length  of  the  horse 
stable,  at  the  rear  of  the  stalls,  and  furnished  with  a 
sliding  hook,  is  very  convenient  for  night  work  with  the 
horses.  Some  farmers  are  so  careless  as  to  keep  the 
lamp  oil  in  the  barn,  and  fill 'the  lantern  there  while  the 
wick  is  burning.  Such  risks  are  too  great,  even  if  the 
buildings  are  insured. 


A  NEST  FOR  SITTING  HENS. 

The  nest  box  shown  in  figure  209  can  be  made  to  con- 
tain as  many  nests  as  desired,  and  be  placed  in  the 
poultry  house  or  any  other  convenient  place.  When  a 
hen  is  set  in  one  of  the  nests,  the  end  of  the  lever  is  slid 
from  under  the  catch  on  top  of  the  box,  and  the  door 
falls  over  the  entrance  to  keep  out  other  hens.  They 
rarely  molest  the  sitting  hen  after  she  has  held  exclusive 
possession  three  or  four  days,  and  the  drop  may  be  raised 


Fig.  209. — BOX  OF  hens'  nest. 

again.  The  box  legs  should  not  be  over  six  inches  long. 
The  step  in  front  of  the  nests,  four  to  six  inches  wide, 
is  a  continuation  of  the  bottom  of  the  box.     It  is  a  vast 


TAKM   COKVEKIEKCES.  .  237 

improvement  on  old  barrels,  broken  boxes,  and  other 
makesliift  liens'  nests  so  generally  employed. 


BARN- YARD  ECONOMY. 

A  dark  stream,  often  of  golden  color,  always  of  golden 
value,  flows  to  waste  from  many  an  American  barn-yard. 
This  liquid  fertility  often  enters  the  side  ditch  of  the 
farm  lane,  sometimes  of  the  highway,  and  empties  into 
a  brook,  which  removes  it  beyond  the  reach  of  plants 
that  would  greatly  profit  by  it.  Mice  may  gnaw  a  hole 
into  the  granary  and  daily  abstract  a  small  quantity  of 
grain,  or  the  skunks  may  reduce  the  profits  of  the  poul- 
try yards,  but  these  leaks  are  small  in  comparison  with 
that  from  the  poorly-constructed  and  ill-kept  barn-yard. 
The  most  valuable  part  of  manure  is  tliat  which  is  very 
soluble,  and  unless  it  is  retained  by  some  absorbent,  or 
kept  from  the  drenching  rains,  it  will  be  quickly  out  of 
reach.  Manure  is  a  manufactured  product,  and  the  suc- 
cess of  all  farm  operations  in  the  older  States  depends 
upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  this  product.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  farmer  who  comes  out  in  the 
spring  with  the  largest  amount  of  the  best  quality  of 
manure  will  be  the  one  who  finds  farming  pays  the  best. 
A  barn-yard,  whether  on  a  side-hill  or  on  a  level,  with 
all  the  rains  free  to  fall  upon  the  manure  heap,  should 
be  so  arranged  as  to  lose  none  of  the  drainage.  Side-hill 
barn-yards  are  common,  because  the  barns  thus  located 
furnish  a  convenient  cellar.  A  barrier  of  eartli  on  the 
lower  side  of  the  yard  can  be  quickly  thrown  up  with  a 
team  and  road-scraper,  which  will  catch  and  hold  the 
drench ings  of  the  yard  above,  and  the  coarse,  newly- 
made  manure  will  absorb  the  liquid  and  be  benefited  by 
it.     It  would  be  better  to  have  the  manure  made  and 


238  fae:m  conveniences. 

kept  under  cover,  always  well  protected  from  rains  and 
melting  snows.  Only  enough  moisture  should  be  pres- 
ent to  keep  it  from  fermenting  too  rapidly.  An  old 
farmer  who  let  his  manure  take  care  of  itself,  once  kept 
some  of  his  sheep  under  cover,  and  was  greatly  surprised 
at  the  increased  value  of  the  manure  thus  made.  In 
fact,  it  was  so  ^* strong*'  that  when  scattered  as  thickly 
as  the  leached  dung  of  the  yard,  it  made  a  distinct  belt 
of  better  grain  in  the  field.  The  testimony  was  so  much 
in  favor  of  the  stall-made  manure  that  this  farmer  is 
now  keeping  all  his  live  stock  under  cover,  and  the  farm 
is  yielding  larger  crops  and  growing  richer  year  by  year. 
If  it  pays  to  stoj)  any  leak  in  the  granary,  it  is  all  the 
more  important  to  look  well  to  the  manure  that  fur- 
nishes the  food,  that  feeds  the  plants,  that  grow  the 
grain,  that  fills  the  grain  bin.  At  this  season  the  living 
mills  are  all  grinding  the  hay  and  grain,  and  yielding 
the  by-products  of  the  manure  heap.  Much  may  be 
saved  in  spring  work  by  letting  this  heap  be  as  small 
as  out-door  yard  feeding  and  the  winds  and  rains  can 
make  it,  but  such  saving  is  like  that  of  the  economic 
sportsman  who  went  out  with  the  idea  of  using  as  little 
powder  and  lead  as  possible.  In  farming,  grow  the 
largest  possible  crops,  even  though  it  takes  a  week  or 
more  of  steady  hard  work  to  get  the  rich,  heavy,  well- 
prepared  manure  upon  the  fields.  More  than  this,  en- 
rich the  land  by  throwing  every  stream  of  fertility  back 
upon  the  acres  which  have  yielded  it.  Watch  the  ma- 
nure heap  as  you  would  a  mine  of  gold. 


A  CHEAP  MANURE  SHED. 


Many  farmers  waste  much  of  their  stable  manure  by 
throwing  it  out  of  doors  to  be  acted  upon  by  sun  and 


FARM   CON^VEKIEKCES.  239 

rain.  We  recently  saw  a  very  cheap,  sensible  method 
of  almost  wholly  preventing  such  loss.  A  board  roof, 
ten  feet  square,  is  supported  by  posts  eight  feet  long 
above  ground,  which  are  connected  inside  by  a  wall  of 
planks  (or  of  poles,  as  the  one  examined  was).  Near  the 
post  at  each  end,  stakes  a^a{  figure  210),  are  set,  against 
which  one  end  of  the  end-planks  rest.     This  allows  the 


Fig.  210.— A   SHED  FOR   MANURE. 

front  planks,  d,  d,  to  be  removed  in  filling  or  loading. 
It  is  placed  near  the  stable,  preferably,  so  that  the  ma- 
nure from  the  stable  can  be  thrown  directly  into  one 
corner,  whence  it  is  forked  to  the  opposite  corner  in  a 
few  days,  to  prevent  too  violent  fermentation.  A  fre- 
quent addition  of  sods,  leaves,  and  other  materials  that 
will  decompose,  will  increase  the  heap,  and  improve  its 
value,  supplying  a  manure  superior  to  many  of  the  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  at  less  cost. 


A  SHEEP  RACK. 


The  dimensions  of  the  rack  (fig.  211)  are  :  length 
twelve  feet,  width  two  feet  nine  inches,  and  hight  three 
feet.     The  materials  are  :  ten  boards  twelve  feet  long, 


240 


FARM   CONVENIENCES. 


eight  of  them  ten  inches  wide,  one  seven  inches  wide, 
and  one  eight  inches  wide  ;  four  boards,  two  feet  nine 
inches  long  and  twelve  inches  wide;  six  posts  three  by  four 
inches,  three  feet  long  ;  sixty-four  slats,  sixteen  inches 
long  and  one  inch  square ;  and  two  strips,  twelve  feet 
long  and  two  and  a  half  inches  wide.  Nail  the  two  nar- 
rower boards  in  the  shape  of  a  trough,  turn  it  bottom 
up,  and  draw  a  line  through  the  middle  of  each  side. 
Set  the  dividers  to  four  and  a  half  inches,  and  mark 
along  the  lines  for  holes  with  a  three-quarter-inch  bit, 
and  bore  the  narrow  strips  to  match.  Set  the  slats  into 
the  trough,  and  fasten  the  strips  on  their  upper  ends. 
Nail  two  of  the  boards  to  the  posts  on  each  side,  as  seen 
in  the  sketch,  and  also  the  short  boards  on  the  ends. 


Fig.  211.— FODDER  RACK  FOR  SHEEP. 

Lay  in  a  floor  one  foot  from  the  ground,  and  set  in  the 
trough  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  Fit  a  board  from 
the  slats  up  to  the  top  of  the  outside  of  the  frame.  The 
floor  need  not  cover  the  middle  under  the  trough. 


^^1 


.s* 


■ti 


